Annex D. SIGI sub-regional overviews
Caucasus (Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia)
The Caucasus has a low level of discrimination (SIGI=27%) with all countries having a low level of gender-based discrimination in social institutions, ranging from 25% for Georgia to 29% for Azerbaijan. Despite this, it is the sub-region in Eurasia with the highest levels of discrimination and is only slightly below the world average of 29%.
-
Contrary to trends in the other two sub-regions and the world, women’s restricted physical integrity is the main area of concern in the Caucasus, particularly due to the persistent sub-regional issue of missing women. This dimension has a level of discrimination of 32%, the highest in the sub-region; this level is 12 percentage points above the average discrimination in the region and 10 percentage points above the average discrimination worldwide.
-
Discrimination in the family, in line with regional and global trends, is also an area of concern in the Caucasus, with the second highest level of discrimination, at 31%.
-
Civil liberties is the dimension where the sub-region performs best, with a level of discrimination of 20%, compared to the regional average of 21% and the world average of 29%.
-
Access to productive and financial resources is the second best dimension for the sub-region, with a level of discrimination of 24%, below the regional average (26%) and the world average (27%)
Key progress in the Caucasus
Discrimination in the family
Women’s inheritance rights are not only equal to men’s but also protected. Since 2012, all countries in the sub-region guarantee that daughters and widows in all groups of women have the same rights to inherit land and non-land assets; in Armenia and Georgia, the two countries where customary laws promote discriminatory practices towards women’s right to inheritance, the law takes precedence over these.
Restricted physical integrity
Reproductive autonomy rights for women have advanced: abortion on request is legal in all countries, and since 2015 underage women do not need the permission of a parent or guardian to seek the procedure.
Restricted access to productive and financial resources
Women have better access to non-land assets compared to other sub-regions. Since 2010, all countries in the sub-region provide divorced women the same rights as divorced men to own, use and make decisions concerning non-land assets. In addition, 26% of house owners in the sub-region are women, the highest rate in Eurasia and slightly above the world average (21%).
Restricted civil liberties
Women’s access to justice has improved. Since 2007, women’s testimony carries the same weight as men’s in all countries, and this sub-region is the only one where women have more confidence in the judicial system than men do (46% of the people who declare a lack of confidence are women).
Key challenges in the Caucasus
Discrimination in the family
Attitudes and practices still constrain women’s role in the family to being caretakers: 54% of the population believe that children suffer when their mother works for pay, and women spend four times more time on unpaid care and domestic work on average than men do, the highest rate in Eurasia.
Restricted physical integrity
Missing women remains an alarming issue. Deeply embedded son bias is reflected in an unbalanced sex ratio at birth of 113 boys to 100 girls (natural sex ratio=105). It is estimated that in Armenia alone, 93 000 women will be missing by 2060 if the issue is not addressed (UNFPA, 2013[1]).
Restricted access to productive and financial resources
Women’s access to work opportunities is still restrained by a lack of family-friendly policies. None of the countries in the sub-region provides paid paternity leave or has legal provisions for unpaid paternity leave.
Restricted civil liberties
Women’s political voice is still restricted. All countries in the sub-region have customary practices that discriminate against women’s legal right to hold public office, and 65% of the population believe that men are better political leaders than women.
Central Asia (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan)
Central Asia has a low level of discrimination (SIGI=25%)1; Mongolia, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan have a low level of gender-based discrimination in social institutions, and Tajikistan has a medium level.
-
Following regional and global trends, discrimination in the family is the main area of concern, with a level of discrimination of 33%, compared to 28% for restricted access to productive and financial resources and 22% for restricted civil liberties. Central Asia has Eurasia’s highest level of discrimination in the family, but is still is 10 percentage points below the global average.
-
As in Eastern Europe, restricted physical integrity is the area where the sub-region performs best, with a level of discrimination of 15%, compared to a global average of 22%.
Key progress in Central Asia
Discrimination in the family
Child marriage is being tackled through the legal framework. Since 2012, all countries in the sub-region except Uzbekistan have raised the legal age of marriage above 18 for both sexes. The prevalence of girl child marriage decreased slightly over the last decade, from 11% to 7%, becoming the lowest in Eurasia.
Restricted physical integrity
Women’s rights to reproductive autonomy have improved. Since 2015, abortion on request is legal in all six countries. In Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan women do not require the approval of fathers to seek the procedure.
Restricted access to productive and financial resources
Policies are enhancing women’s secure access to financial services. With National Action Plans established since 2015, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan promote gender-sensitive measures to expand women's access to formal financial services, including credit. Women represent 49% of credit-card owners.
Restricted civil liberties
Monitoring of gender equality has been formally established in the sub-region. Since 2006, all countries have established a specialised body tasked with monitoring gender equality, making Central Asia the only sub-region in Eurasia where this occurs.
Key challenges in Central Asia
Discrimination in the family
Gender roles within the household are still affected by discriminatory social norms embedded in the male-breadwinner model. Across the sub-region, 46% of the population think that it is problematic if a woman earns more money than her husband does, and 87% believe that being a homemaker is as fulfilling as working for pay. Women spend twice as much time in unpaid care and domestic work than men do.
Restricted physical integrity
Political commitments regarding violence against women have not been integrated into legal frameworks, and discriminatory attitudes prevail. Domestic violence is not a criminal offence in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan; there is no legal protection against sexual harassment in Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan; 34% of the sub-region’s women believe that domestic violence is justifiable; and 20% have been victims of it in their lifetime.
Restricted access to productive and financial resources
Women’s ability to exercise their work rights is limited by discriminatory social attitudes. Although women legally have the same rights to work as men do, 22 % of the population believe that it is unacceptable for women in their family to have a paid job, and 45% of women of working age are not in the labour force (ILO, 2018[2]), the highest rates in Eurasia.
Restricted civil liberties
Women’s political voice is still restricted by discriminatory attitudes. A total of 70% of the population believe that men make better political leaders overall than women do, and 21% of parliamentarians are women, compared to the world average of 24%.
Eastern Europe (Belarus, Moldova, Ukraine)
Eastern Europe has a homogenous low level of gender-based discrimination in social institutions (SIGI=21%), the lowest in Eurasia. The level of discrimination is below both the regional average of 24% and the global average of 29%.
-
The main area of concern for the sub-region, as in the region and the world, is discrimination in the family. This dimension has a level of discrimination of 26%, compared to 23% in restricted access to productive and financial resources and 20% in restrictive civil liberties.
-
Restricted physical integrity is the area where the sub-region performs best, as in the region as a whole and the world. Eastern Europe is Eurasia’s best performer in this dimension, with a level of discrimination of 14%, compared to a regional average of 20% and a global average of 22%.
Key progress in Eastern Europe
Discrimination in the family
Divorce rights are universal. Since 2004, all countries in the sub-region provide women with the same rights and requirements as men to initiate divorce and be legal guardians of their children, and none of the countries has customary laws or practices discriminating against women’s rights in terms of divorce.
Restricted physical integrity
Women’s reproductive autonomy has improved. Abortions on request are legal in all three countries until week 12, and restrictions on abortions beyond the first trimester have been reduced since 2013. The percentage of women with unmet needs for family planning has declined from 13% in 2014 to 6% in 2019, the lowest rate in Eurasia.
Restricted access to productive and financial resources
Despite persistent unequal practices, women fully benefit from secure access to land by law. Since 2004, all groups of women, including divorcees, have the same rights to land as men and there are no discriminatory customary laws in place. Across the sub-region, 34% of landowners are women, compared to 26% in Eurasia and 14% in the world.
Restricted civil liberties
Women’s rights to equal access to justice are constitutionally embedded. Since 1996, the constitutions of all three countries grant women the same rights as men to sue. There are no laws or practices in any of the countries that discriminate against women’s right to be judges or women’s right to provide testimony in court.
Key challenges in Eastern Europe
Discrimination in the family
Discriminatory practices against women still prevail within the family. Across the sub-region, 85% of the population believe that being a housewife is as fulfilling as working for pay. Women spend five hours a day on unpaid care and domestic work on average, compared to 2.5 hours spent by men.
Restricted physical integrity
Violence against women remains an issue. In Moldova and Ukraine, the law has no specific provisions for the investigation, prosecution and punishment of the perpetrator. A total of 10% of women in the sub-region had been victims of domestic abuse in the 12 months previous to being questioned, and 17% of women throughout their lifetime.
Restricted access to productive and financial resources
Legal barriers to women’s access to work opportunities remain. In Moldova and Ukraine, women are not legally allowed to work the same night hours as men.
Restricted civil liberties
Women’s political voice is still limited by practices and attitudes. Women occupy only 18% of parliamentary seats, the lowest rate in Eurasia, and 54% of the population believe that men are better political leaders than women.
Note
← 1. Based on the average of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia and Tajikistan. There is missing data on Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.