4. Vocational education and training to support transitions

Abstract

This chapter looks at how vocational education and training (VET) can support transitions of learners, both into the labour market and into further learning. It discusses the importance of solid foundational and transversal skills that make individuals adaptable in light of changing skill needs in labour markets and societies. It also looks at pathways between VET and higher levels of education and how such pathways can be made most effective to enable progression and lifelong learning. Lastly, the chapter discusses the importance of career guidance for informing young people and adults about learning and career opportunities.

Introduction

Structural changes in the labour market increase the chances that workers will need to change jobs or are faced with significant changes within their job. As discussed in Chapter 1, many jobs are likely to be impacted by the digital transition, as a variety of tasks can potentially be automated. Likewise, the green transition will change production and working methods, as well as lead to job losses in certain (polluting) sectors. As such, most individuals will not be doing the exact same job for their entire career. Such changes call for individuals who are resilient and can adapt to new circumstances. This requires a solid set of transversal skills and a willingness to learn.

VET typically prepares individuals for the labour market, and in particular for one field, sector or occupation. VET programmes differ in how broad or narrow they are. Broader programmes have the advantage of preparing individuals for a number of different job roles, which can also make them more adaptable in light of change. However, in contrast to more narrow programmes, they may not make learners job-ready and therefore make the transition from school to work less smooth. Related to this, VET programmes also differ in terms of the transversal content they include, with some focussing fairly narrowly on occupation-specific skills, and other also developing a range of transversal skills – including foundational skills. Such transversal skills can help individuals navigate changing labour markets and societies.

Being adaptable necessarily also implies being able and willing to continue to learn. As discussed in the previous chapters, lifelong learning becomes increasingly important. This requires individuals to have sufficient opportunities to participate in learning – including in VET-, as well as a readiness to learn. Without solid foundations to build on, adults cannot effectively engage in upskilling and reskilling. Therefore, all individuals need to have strong foundational skills, like literacy and numeracy, including those who come from VET. In addition to this solid basis, individuals also need to have a lifelong learning mindset, i.e. an understanding of the importance of lifelong learning and interest to engage in it.

Navigating change can be difficult. Helping individuals, both young and older, understand ongoing and expected changes, and the implications they can have for them, is essential. Making sure they understand which tools are available to help them navigate these changes is equally important. As such, career guidance can be a powerful to help individuals understand how labour markets and societies are changing and how this affects skill needs, and support them in making informed education, training and career choices.

This chapter looks at how VET can contribute to developing strong transversal skills, including foundational skills. It also looks at pathways between VET and higher levels of learning to ensure that individuals who want to further develop their skills -potentially later in life- have the possibility of doing so. Lastly, the chapter also takes a close look at career guidance for young people and adults, and in particular how career guidance can be integrated into VET and guide future learners towards VET options.

How can VET develop transversal skills?

As learners in VET typically prepare for a specific occupation, set of occupations or sector, transversal skills may be less prominent in VET curricula than in general education programmes. This could have implications for their adaptability and resilience down the line. Data on transversal skills are hard to come by, given the complexity of defining and assessing many of those skills. Nonetheless, the OECD Survey of Adult Skills (Programme for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies, PIAAC) sheds light on three important transversal skills: literacy, numeracy and digital problem-solving. Evidence from that survey shows that among young adults, those without an upper-secondary degree and those with upper-secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary VET qualifications (as their highest qualification) have the weakest literacy, numeracy and digital problem-solving proficiency (OECD, 2020[1]). For example, across OECD countries on average 15% of young adults with a vocational qualification lack basic literacy skills (Figure 4.1), compared to 12% among those with a general qualification at the same level and only 5% among those with a tertiary qualification. Only in Canada, New Zealand and the United States young adults with VET qualifications are slightly more proficient in literacy than their general education counterparts. In these countries, fully fledged VET programmes mostly exist at the postsecondary level, implying that these graduates have been through more years of education and therefore had more exposure to general subjects than VET graduates in most other countries. Data from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) (as shown in Chapter 3) also show that 15-year-olds in pre-vocational or vocational programmes have weaker reading performance than those in general programmes.

Figure 4.1. Literacy proficiency of VET graduates vs. graduates from general programmes (PIAAC)

As such, the PIAAC data suggest that VET graduates may have weaker transversal skills than those coming from other parts of the education system. This could be due to transversal skills getting limited attention in VET curricula, but also because of gaps in these skills when learners enter VET. The gap could also be partially explained by young adults having more limited opportunities to develop these skills after having left the education system and entered the labour market. All of these potential reasons call for increased attention to transversal skills development, at various stages of the life cycle.

Designing upper secondary VET programmes that allow learners to succeed and be adaptable

Upper secondary education is the last time the full student cohort is in a highly structured school setting where policy makers have considerable responsibility for the curriculum (Stronati, 2023[2]).1 At this stage, countries have a duty to ensure that, by the time they leave school, all young people have been supported to develop the competencies they will need to succeed in the adult world and working life. At the same time, upper secondary systems need to be responsive to students’ interests and abilities, to keep young people engaged and enable them to succeed in their final stage of schooling. To meet these objectives, countries need to provide some degree of specialisation and choice in upper secondary education.

Stratification or diversity across programmes entails students being separated into one, two or multiple different upper secondary programmes, usually classified by orientation (general or vocational). Most countries that distinguish between general and vocational education offer multiple upper secondary programmes. The most frequent number of programmes across OECD countries is three, and the most common combination is one general programme and two vocational programmes. In countries where vocational education is well-developed, as in Austria, the Netherlands and Switzerland, upper secondary education offers more than one vocational programme. These systems have a high level of stratification or diversity across programmes. Countries with a comprehensive system, such as Canada and the United States, have a low level of stratification across programmes, since they do not sort students into different programmes. Even in these countries, students are able to choose vocational options within their comprehensive upper secondary education.

OECD countries most frequently start selection at the beginning of upper secondary education, with the most frequent age of selection being 15. Selection into different pathways might occur very early, as in Austria and Germany (at around age 10), or, as is most common, not until the end of lower secondary education, as in Finland and Norway (at around age 15 or 16). In other countries, such as New Zealand and the United States, there is no formal differentiation between programmes at the upper secondary level, although students in these countries may pursue different levels, options and specialisations within programmes. There is a correlation between when selection occurs and the number of programmes in upper secondary education (Figure 4.2). In most countries offering a higher number of upper secondary programmes, the age at first selection is lower, as in Austria, Italy and the Netherlands. On the other hand, countries with little or no difference between programmes select students at a later age or not at all, as in Chile, England (United Kingdom), Finland, Norway, Sweden and the United States.

Figure 4.2. Education programmes available to students in upper secondary education and age at first selection

Finding a suitable balance between general and vocational content

Irrespective of the number of programmes and the age of selection, all learners in upper-secondary education need to be able to develop the foundational skills required in labour markets and societies. As such, curricula of upper secondary programmes typically contain some compulsory or core content. The core represents those subjects or competencies that are compulsory for all students at the upper secondary level. Countries can define the core by using compulsory subjects that all students must take or by embedding competencies in the curriculum across different disciplines. The core aims to ensure that all students complete upper secondary with a specific and coherent set of skills and competences. In nearly all countries, all upper secondary students are required to study the mother-tongue language and mathematics. Some upper secondary systems provide core content at different levels. In Sweden, for example, all upper secondary programmes require a set of core subjects, such as English, history, physical education and health, mathematics, science, knowledge of religion, civics and Swedish, and students can choose courses at different levels, each of which deepens and advances a particular subject. Providing subjects at different levels enables systems to cater to different learning levels and reflect different aspirations for the future.

While a small number of countries define a small core curriculum or requirements based on minimum competences in literacy and numeracy, as in Ireland, New Zealand and the United Kingdom, the majority of countries have established a wider set of core subjects or content that students need to cover at the upper secondary level (see Table 4.1 for some examples). A wider core tends to limit choice and ensure that students study a broad range of subjects. In contrast, in countries where students study fewer subjects, they tend to go into greater depth.

In countries where students are tracked into general and vocational programmes, core subjects may be the same across the programmes or they may differ substantially. In France, Italy, Japan, Korea, Mexico and Sweden, the core curriculum covers the same subjects for students studying in general and vocational education. A common practice for countries in this group is to offer general and vocational programmes with the same common core and then add a group of compulsory subjects according to the specialisation of each programme (Le Métais, 2002[4]). The additional group of subjects varies depending on the orientation. In vocational education, it often includes professional subjects such as mechanics, health, tourism and technology, depending on the area of specialisation. In Sweden, for example, 30% of the content across vocational and general programmes is the same, which corresponds to the core or compulsory content across both programmes. Providing this degree of shared content across the programmes increases permeability between pathways since students share the same subjects, and it ensures that all students complete upper secondary with the same base of skills and competencies (EURYDICE, 2022[5]).

In countries like in Austria, Chile, Finland and the Netherlands the core subjects in the general orientation are different from those in the vocational orientation. In Chile and Norway, there are only two or three differences between the two orientations. In Australia and the Netherlands, the distinction is more significant, with four to six academic subjects in general programmes and three academic subjects plus specific professional content in vocational programmes. In some countries, even if the core subjects across orientations are the same, the time spent on these subjects and the content differ. In Italy, for example, English is a core subject in both orientations, but in general programmes it includes learning the language, the culture and the literature while in vocational programmes it entails learning the language and the vocabulary associated with the specialisation of the programme (MIUR, 2018[6]). In the Netherlands, students in the general track learn Dutch language and literature, while those in the vocational track focus on literacy skills. In the general track, students are exposed to social studies, while in the vocational track the focus is on citizenship and career management skills (EURYDICE, 2022[5]). Adapting content to each specific programme might help vocational students to build more real-world skills and increase engagement and participation as students can see the value of learning. The main challenge is to ensure that all upper secondary students still have strong foundation skills.

Based on evidence from Swedish and Danish VET graduates, it has been shown that the amount of cognitively challenging subjects at the upper-secondary level gives a lasting imprint on literacy proficiency later in life (Rasmusson et al., 2019[7]). Stronger cognitive skills could help adults in the labour market, by making them more adaptable and facilitating participation in further training opportunities. Hanushek et al. (2017[8]) indeed suggest that the weaker labour market outcomes of VET graduates later in life could be linked to weaker basic skills and therefore limited adaptability. Nonetheless, other research on the reforms of Swedish VET programmes finds no evidence that having attended a longer and more general vocational programme is associated with a reduced risk of experiencing unemployment, nor with a higher probability of entering higher education or higher earnings later in life (Hall, 2012[9]; 2016[10]). The evidence also suggests that these longer VET programmes could have a negative effect on outcomes of students who enter these programmes with low levels of skills, as it increased their probability of dropping out of school (Hall, 2012[9]).

Finding the right balance between general and vocational subjects is not an easy task. Firstly, when reinforcing the general component in VET curricula it should be ensured that this does not have detrimental effects on the motivation of students. Some students might have chosen the vocational track because of negative experiences within a standard school-based setting, and might therefore be demotivated by curricula that have a substantial school-based academic component. One way to potentially overcome this issue is to integrate foundational or core skills with vocational training. In the United States, the Math-in-CTE (career and technical education) programme brings together CTE and maths teachers to develop a curriculum map that identifies the CTE concepts and intersecting math concepts that are naturally embedded within the CTE curriculum (OECD, 2010[11]). Secondly, when adding general subjects to VET curricula results in a longer study duration, the potential benefits of such a reform should be carefully weighed against the expected (opportunity) costs. Ensuring that VET graduates have strong foundational skills is not the sole responsibility of the VET system, but also of the broader initial education system. Strong foundational skills need to be developed already in the early years of education, before students enter the VET stream. This will help avoid that those who enter VET have already accumulated substantial gaps in foundational skills during their early education years.

Table 4.1. Common core in general (G) and vocational (V) programmes in upper secondary education
	National language(s)		Mathematics		Science		Geography		History		Social sciences		Foreign language		Physical education		Art		ICT		Civics		Specialised vocational content		Work-based component
Orientation	G	V	G	V	G	V	G	V	G	V	G	V	G	V	G	V	G	V	G	V	G	V	G	V	G	V
Austria
Chile
Finland
France
Italy
Japan
Korea
Mexico
Norway
Netherlands
Sweden
United Kingdom
Note: Information for Korea refers to subjects that are compulsory only in the first year of upper secondary education.
Core in both general and vocational
Core only in general
Core only in vocational
Source: Stronati (2023[2]), “The design of upper secondary education across OECD countries: Managing choice, coherence and specialisation”, OECD Education Working Papers, No. 288, https://doi.org/10.1787/158101f0-en.

Ensuring that specialisation does not limit adaptability

In most countries, students start to specialise at the beginning of upper secondary education and progressively develop their specialisation as they move through the cycle. A number of countries provide students with space to try out different subjects at the beginning of upper secondary before specialisation begins, so that they can see what they like. In France, all students have an orientation year (called second), which marks the start of upper secondary education. This year helps students to make the choice between programmes and delays the age of specialisation so that it corresponds with the end of compulsory schooling at age 16. In Italy, the first two years of upper secondary education (age 14-16), general and vocational programmes also have a very similar general core. This provides flexibility if students want to move across programmes and also means that students choose their specialisation at age 16, which corresponds to the end of compulsory education. In the United Kingdom systems, where the upper secondary cycle is comparatively long, students have a first phase at age 14-16, when they study a broad range of subjects (9-11), culminating in national examinations, the GCSEs. This is followed by a second phase at age 16-18, when students study a far smaller range of subjects, culminating in another set of national examinations, the A-Levels or T-Levels. As students move through upper secondary education, the range of subjects that they study often falls, in line with increasing specialisation. In Denmark, for example, the main vocational programme (EUD or erhvervsuddannelse) starts with a basic course, in which students choose one of four specialisations in the second year: i) food, agriculture and hospitality; ii) technology, construction and transportation; iii) administration, commerce and business service; and iv) care, health and pedagogy. After completing the basic course, they move on to the main course in which they can choose among around 100 fields.

Internationally, all vocational systems provide students with a specialisation as well as a choice over their specialisation. In vocational systems, specialisations enable students to acquire specific professional or technical skills, which provide the foundations for employment or further study. In countries with multiple vocational programmes and highly developed vocational systems (such as Austria, Germany and the Netherlands), specialisations can be more tailored to specific professions or categories of professions. In systems with fewer vocational programmes, specialisations tend to be broader and less specific, since they need to prepare students to enter both employment and further education.

Countries differ strongly in the number of specialisations they provide in VET – reflecting different choices in how narrow or specialised the training should be and differences in labour market demand. In Sweden, for example, upper secondary vocational education offers only 12 possible vocational qualifications and around 4-5 specialisms per qualification (Skolverket, 2023[12]). In Switzerland, upper-secondary VET students can choose from 245 occupations. For post-secondary VET, there are about 420 federal examinations (260 federal professional examinations, and 160 advanced federal professional examinations), as well as 55 study programmes in vocational education institutions. In Estonia, there are 500-600 vocational qualifications at all levels. This is still relatively low compared to around 1 200 vocational qualifications (including some at higher level) in Australia. While differences between countries reflect the coverage of VET in terms of sectors and occupations, they also reflect differences in how narrowly defined vocational programmes and qualifications are.

A very large number of qualifications may mean that qualifications are defined narrowly to match the needs of a handful of employers, limiting labour market mobility of the qualification holder. Overlapping qualifications undermine the clear signalling of which qualification is appropriate for particular jobs. Very broad qualifications, while providing a range of general and transferable skills, may not make the person immediately employable. For example, in Sweden, where the course requirements are broad, an additional qualification is often required once initial vocational training is completed – for example a trade certificate as a carpenter or plumber (Boverket, 2023[13]).

Various countries have been broadening their vocational programmes and qualifications (and hence reducing the number of specialisations) in response to rapidly changing labour markets. Broader programmes can make learners more adaptable in a changing labour market and allow for more flexibility. Finland’s recent reform of upper secondary VET, for example, reduced the number of qualifications from 351 to 164 (of which 42 are initial vocational qualification, and the others are further and specialist vocational qualifications). The initial vocational qualifications consist of vocational units and common units, with the former being either compulsory or optional. In the Republic of Türkiye (hereafter ‘Türkiye’), recent reforms aim to reduce the number of VET fields from 55 to 47 and the number of branches from 203 to 109, in an effort to increase flexibility and occupational mobility (Canbal et al., 2020[14]). As of July 2023, there are 53 fields and 114 branches in secondary vocational education institutions, while Vocational Training Centers have 38 fields and 192 branches.

Equipping VET learners with transversal skills crucial for working life and beyond

As labour markets and societies change, transversal skills become increasingly important to navigate these changes and remain adaptable and flexible. Moreover, many transversal skills, such as collaboration, problem-solving and creativity, are hard to automate and therefore become crucial complements to more technical skills in labour markets that are increasingly automated. Indeed, Lassébie and Quintini (2022[15]) find that, thanks to important advances in automation technologies driven by artificial intelligence (AI), some skills and abilities previously identified as bottlenecks to automation, such knowledge of fine arts, several psychomotor abilities, reading comprehension, deductive and inductive reasoning skills, fluency of ideas and scheduling skills, are now more susceptible to automation. However, they also find that significant bottlenecks to automation remain, in particular for skills related to complex problem-solving, high-level management and social interaction – which can hardly be automated given the current state of technological developments.

Transversal skills are defined and labelled in various ways. They typically refer to skills that cut across disciplines or occupations. Various countries have developed dedicated frameworks for such skills, as is the case for “employability skills” in the United States and “meta-skills” in Scotland (United Kingdom) (Box 4.1). Some countries have sought to systematically integrate transversal skills of all types into their qualifications, often by identifying a set of ‘key competences’ which many or most vocational programmes (and general education) programmes are expected to develop (Field, 2023[16]).

For example, in Australia, training packages include not only occupation-specific skills, but also the foundation skills that support participation in the workplace, in the community and in education and training. Foundation skills include: reading, writing, oral communication, numeracy, learning skills, problem-solving skills, initiative and enterprise, teamwork, planning and organising skills, self-management, and technology skills (Australian Government. Department of Education, Skills and Employment, 2022[17]). Accredited courses must identify foundation skills relevant to the course outcomes and each unit of competency requires the inclusion of information relating to the foundation skills within the unit. Unlike some other countries, Australian training packages do not define required course work (e.g. number of hours in mathematics, English) but the foundation skills are described in terms of the ability to perform a job task. For example, the training package for Certificate II (ISCED level 2) requires students to be able to ‘Read and interpret routine information on written job instructions and standard operating procedures’, and ‘Use basic numeracy skills for undertaking comparison measurements’ (Australian Government, 2013[18]).2

In Denmark, the regulations for all vocational programmes emphasis the importance of transversal skills (Ministry of Children and Education. Denmark, 2021[19]): “The programme must contribute to the development of the pupil's and apprentice's character formation, professional pride and ability to take independent positions, cooperate and communicate. Training shall also promote professional and social problem-solving skills, the development of initiative, flexibility and a sense of quality, and the development of the basic skills of learners and apprentices, in particular in mathematics, reading, oral and written communication and information technology.”. Furthermore, regulations for each programme define how transversal skills are applied in the workplace. For example, “the apprentice should be able to manage day-to-day operations, facilitate good cooperation on the basis of knowledge of ethnic and cultural differences and communicate effectively with employees, customers and other business partners”.

Developing transversal skill among learners often requires different approaches than when developing occupation-specific or technical skills. Chapter 5 zooms in on pedagogical approaches that can be considered more suitable for the development of certain transversal skills and the technologies that can support this type of teaching and learning. Some countries make dedicated resources available for teachers and schools. For example, the United States Department for Education developed tools, media and resources related to its Employability Skills Framework (Box 4.1) to support educators, administrators and employers in making use of the framework. Resources include sample interview questions aligned to the Employability Skills Framework for use by employers and educators to help job candidates describe their employability skills in an employment interview; an instruction planning tool for reflecting on the extent to which employability skills are currently integrated into education and training programmes and identifying opportunities to further emphasise skills where there are gaps; and an assessment selection tool that describes criteria for selecting an employability skills assessment and provides a worksheet for comparing assessment resources to selection criteria. The Scottish meta-skills framework (Box 4.1) is accompanied by a toolkit -developed through consultation with educators and other partners- to create a suite of resources that support practitioners embed skills in a manageable and sustainable way. It includes, among other things, a progression framework with examples of how meta-skills can be developed through different levels of education; professional learning resources to support practitioners with understanding and implementing; lesson plans; and lesson inserts, i.e. bite-size activities and videos that can be used by practitioners to develop and contextualise meta-skills.

Box 4.1. Frameworks for transversal skills

United States: Employability skills framework

As defining, measuring, and building personal and interpersonal skills— even naming them— can be challenging, the US Department of Education compiled the Employability Skills Framework - in an effort to leverage and connect the efforts of policy makers, educators, and employers (U.S. Department of Education, n.d.[20]). The Framework advances a unifying set of skills that cuts across the workforce development and education sectors based on an inventory of existing employability skills standards and assessments. It was developed as part of the Support for States Employability Standards in Career and Technical Education (CTE) and Adult Education project, an initiative of the Office of Career, Technical, and Adult Education. Framework development was guided by CTE, adult education, workforce development and business organisations, and twelve federal agencies. The Employability Skills Framework contains the following elements:

Applied knowledge
- Applied academic skills: reading skills, writing skills, math strategies/procedures, scientific principles/procedures
- Critical thinking skills: thinks creatively, thinks critically, makes sound decisions, solves problems, reasons, plans/organises.
Effective relationships:
- Interpersonal skills: understands teamwork and works with others, responds to customer needs, exercises leadership, negotiates to resolve conflict, respects individual differences
- Personal qualities: demonstrates responsibility and self-discipline, adapts and shows flexibility, works independently, demonstrates a willingness to learn, demonstrates integrity, demonstrates professionalism, takes initiative, displays a positive attitude and sense of self-worth, takes responsibility for professional growth.
Workplace skills
- Resource management: manages time, money, resources and personnel
- Information use: locates, organises, uses, analyses, communicates
- Communication skills: communicates verbally, listens actively, comprehends written material, conveys information in writing, observes carefully
- Systems thinking: understands and uses systems, monitors systems, improves systems
- Technology use: understands and uses technology.

Scotland: Meta-skills framework

Skills Development Scotland defines meta-skills are innate, timeless, higher-order skills that create adaptive learners; able to succeed whatever the future brings (Skills Development Scotland, 2021[21]). The Skills 4.0 model proposes 12 meta-skills organised under three themes:

Self-Management - Manage the now: Coping with on-going change to support wellbeing, growth, performance and productivity. Includes focusing, integrity, adapting, initiative.
Social Intelligence - Connect with the world: Connecting and collaborating with others to effectively navigate and negotiate complex social relationships and environments. Includes Communicating, feeling, collaborating, leading.
Innovation - Create our own change: Defining and creating significant positive change. Includes curiosity, sense-making, creativity, critical thinking.

Building a lifelong learning mindset

The need for workers to reskill and upskill throughout life – particularly in a context of rapid digital transformations – has put lifelong learning at the forefront of the political agenda in most industrialised countries. As discussed in Chapter 3, adults participate relatively little in upskilling and reskilling opportunities, and those with vocational qualifications are among the groups with the lowest participation rates. Adults typically face various barriers to engage in training, and governments can tackle some obstacles – such as time or financial constraints – using short term measures. However, only adopting a lifelong perspective can enable them to overcome other obstacles related to the disposition to learn and a lack of foundation skills originating from previous stages of an individual’s education.

Becoming an effective lifelong learner involves a cumulative process, which starts in infancy and is influenced thereafter by the institutional arrangements that provide opportunities to learn (OECD, 2019[22]). Learning at any stage of the life cycle builds on learning and skills acquired at previous stages (Cunha et al., 2006[23]). Hence, setting strong foundations early in life is essential to cultivate lifetime learning. As discussed above, not all VET programmes have an equally important focus on foundational skills. While developing strong cognitive skills – such as literacy or numeracy – is important, previous work by the OECD has shown that non-cognitive skills, as well as strong attitudes and dispositions to learn, constitute the necessary foundations for future learning (OECD, 2019[22]). Some emotional skills and personality traits, such as conscientiousness and openness, can create a favourable disposition to learn later in life. Likewise, some attitudes, such as self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation, help individuals set goals for their learning endeavours.

While individual attitudes and dispositions to learn mostly develop early in life – starting with kindergarten and evolving throughout the schooling years – their benefits carry over into adulthood. In fact, individuals who have positive learning attitudes are more prone to engage in further learning throughout life (OECD, 2019[24]; Tuckett and Field, 2016[25]). Early education and compulsory schooling are therefore critical stages, where all students are given the chance to develop strong lifelong learning attitudes (LLLAs) and close monitoring of individual progress ensures that any arising gaps are rapidly identified and closed through timely interventions.

Using data from PISA, OECD (2021[26]) shows that 15-year-old pupils who are endowed with stronger attitudes and dispositions to learn tend to perform better at school. They also develop higher educational and career expectations than their peers with weaker attitudes. This, in turn, could exert a positive influence on their choice to enrol in further education, and on their labour-market outcomes later in life.

OECD (2021[26]) analysis highlights the existence of a strong link between stocks of attitudes that are accumulated at different stages of the education process. Hence, a greater endowment of lifelong learning attitudes in adolescence probably results from both contemporaneous efforts and interventions by teachers and families, and prior investments. Therefore, education policy makers should design comprehensive strategies targeting different stages of the learning process (starting with early education) to promote positive lifelong learning attitudes throughout schooling – including in VET.

Together with parents, teachers play a key role in furthering children’s and adolescents’ cognitive and non-cognitive abilities. Motivating students to become active learners has become a major concern of educators and teachers. OECD (2021[26]) analysis shows that 15-year-olds’ lifelong learning attitudes are positively associated with specific teaching styles, especially teacher enthusiasm and teacher stimulation of reading. For instance, teacher enthusiasm has a particularly strong relationship with students’ motivation to master tasks and develop ambitious learning goals, as well as their self-efficacy and enjoyment of reading (Figure 4.3). Consistently across countries, the results suggest that students display higher levels of lifelong learning attitudes when they perceive their teachers as inspiring and enthusiastic about the material presented in class. Chapter 2 already highlighted the importance of equipping VET teachers with a solid set of pedagogical and industry-specific skills and knowledge and the need for teachers coming from industry to develop the capability to effectively transfer their skills and knowledge to learners. Chapter 5 includes a discussion of innovative pedagogical approach in VET.

Figure 4.3. Change in lifelong learning attitudes associated with students reporting their teacher is inspiring, OECD average

What do effective progression opportunities for VET graduates in higher education look like?

In the past, vocational upper secondary programmes were often designed to provide a route to a skilled job, perhaps a lifetime occupation. Today VET is often an intermediary qualification, on which individuals will build as their career develops. Many bright and ambitious students in vocational programmes will have their eyes set on tertiary studies to complete before entering the labour market. Others will start their careers and seek to pursue higher level programmes to progress in their sector or change careers. Evidence shows that jobs held by VET graduates are more at risk of automation than those held by tertiary graduates (Vandeweyer and Verhagen, 2020[28]; OECD, 2020[1]). In the context of fast-changing skills needs and automation, VET graduates increasingly need to be prepared to pursue further learning, including at higher levels of education. This section therefore looks at progression pathways between initial VET and tertiary education.

Establishing pathways from VET to higher levels

Countries have adopted various approaches to building pathways from upper-secondary VET to higher levels of learning. Most OECD countries offer vocational programmes as one of the pathways in upper secondary education (as discussed above), with different opportunities for progression to higher levels. Many countries have a single vocational track at upper secondary level and all VET graduates have direct access to all levels of tertiary education, similarly to their peers from general upper secondary programmes. Examples include Chile, Costa Rica, Estonia, Finland, Korea, Lithuania, Portugal and Türkiye. In practice, this often means eligibility to those programmes, and there are often additional selection procedures. Access to bachelor level programmes is sometimes restricted to a specific sector of tertiary education, often part of the “higher VET” sector or a distinct institutional sector with focus on applied, professionally-oriented learning (see Chapter 2): in Germany, the Netherlands, Slovenia and Switzerland VET graduates can access professional programmes but not universities. In some countries VET graduates can access short-cycle tertiary education, which is mostly professional in nature. These programmes develop higher level occupational skills and can also serve as a bridge to bachelor’s level. For example, in Austria VET graduates have direct access to short-cycle tertiary programmes only (which are in effect a continuation of upper secondary VET). Upon completion, graduates gain eligibility to universities and universities of applied sciences. Similarly, in Chile graduates of higher technician programmes at ISCED level 5 may progress to four-year programmes offered within the same institution. In Denmark, business academy graduates in some programmes have the option to pursue a top-up degree of 1.5 years and obtain a professional bachelor’s degree. In the United Kingdom Higher National Diploma graduates may enter the third year of a bachelor’s degree programme (OECD, 2022[29]). But not all short-cycle tertiary programmes open the doors of bachelor’s level education. Some higher vocational programmes are rather disconnected from the university sector in particular, so that completing them does not facilitate entry into bachelor’s programmes.

Many countries have at least some VET programmes that do not yield direct access to tertiary education. In countries where a large share of students pursue such programmes (e.g. France, Hungary, Netherlands, Slovenia), there are always bridges that connect VET with tertiary education. Bridges that connect vocational programmes with tertiary education may take different forms (some are described in detail in Box 4.2):

Dedicated bridging programmes: These mostly take one or two years to complete. Examples of ISCED level 3 bridging programmes include follow-up courses yielding the maturita in the Czech Republic, programmes preparing for the maturity examination in Hungary, or the vocational baccalaureate in Switzerland. In some countries such bridging programmes are offered at postsecondary non-tertiary level – such as programmes yielding the university entrance qualification in Germany, and follow-up courses yielding the maturita in the Slovak Republic.
Options within upper secondary vocational programmes: Vocational students may choose to pursue additional general education and obtain eligibility to tertiary education (or a wider range of tertiary programmes) – such options exist in Denmark, Germany and Switzerland (the above-mentioned vocational baccalaureate).
Stand-alone examinations: VET graduates may prepare for the examination on their own or through a preparatory course – examples include the vocational matura in Austria and the vocational baccalaureate in Switzerland.

Some countries offer various bridging options at the same time – for example in Germany the university entrance qualification may be obtained in parallel to the apprenticeship programme or upon completion of it, taken as a stand-alone examination.

Box 4.2. Gaining eligibility to tertiary programmes during or after VET

Denmark

In Denmark, the EUX programme was introduced to increase attractiveness of VET and provide an option for students interested both in vocational training and academic education. These programmes are more demanding than regular vocational programmes as students have to acquire two qualifications in parallel. Unlike, other upper-secondary VET programmes, EUX provides direct access to higher education. This form of education and training has been gaining popularity and now enrols 13% of all VET students (6% of all upper-secondary students). In 2018, among students opting for VET 30% chose EUX programmes. Evaluation has shown that the EUX programme, as intended, has attracted into VET strongly performing students who would not have considered VET in the absence of access to higher education. One potential risk identified by some commentators is that over time EUX might turn into academic programmes with the vocational element being lost (Andersen and Helms, 2019[30]; CEDEFOP, 2018[31]; Jørgensen, 2017[32]).

Norway

In Norway, while the mainstream 2+2 VET model in upper secondary education is composed of two years in school followed by two years in work-based learning, students can opt for other types of VET provision depending on their needs and objectives. For example, students interested in VET and at the same time aiming for entry to higher education can work simultaneously over four years towards vocational and study competence (YSK) and technical general studies (TAF). Students in this programme receive their work-based learning in parallel to education and training in school in general education subjects and subjects common to the chosen programmes (Utdanningsdirektoratet, 2023[33]).

Switzerland

VET graduates are eligible to professional programmes at tertiary levels, but not universities or universities of applied sciences. The federal vocational baccalaureate yields eligibility to universities of applied sciences and may be obtained during apprenticeship or taken as a separate examination. Obtaining it during the apprenticeship requires the apprentice to pursue work-based learning in a company that offers the vocational baccalaureate. Admission is subject to certain conditions (e.g. school grades, entrance tests) and the programme involves about one additional day at the vocational school compared to other apprentices. Alternatively, VET graduates may prepare individually and take a central examination. The examination involves a written test, an oral test and an interdisciplinary project work. The interdisciplinary project work focuses on a pre-defined topic, specific to the sector targeted by the candidate. If VET graduates wish to gain eligibility to university programmes, they need to complete a Passerelle programme (SDBB, 2023[34]).

One different approach to organising pathways is to keep upper secondary education general and delay occupational preparation mostly to the postsecondary level, as in Canada and the United States. Vocational courses exist in upper secondary education but they are offered typically as an optional subject and take up limited space in the curriculum. In the absence of vocational tracks, there are no constraints in progression to higher levels (although accessing some fields will require the completion of particular subjects and levels at high school level, such as higher maths for engineering). The pathway from high school to higher levels of education is often similar to progression from general education to tertiary education in countries with vocational tracks. In schools that offer programmes with stronger vocational content (e.g. CTE concentrators in the United States), there are sometimes linkages with postsecondary education, linking initial technical preparation in high school to a postsecondary qualification in the same field (Box 4.3).

Box 4.3. Creating linkages between vocational content in upper secondary and tertiary programmes

Early college credit – United States

“Dual enrolment” or “early college” programmes allow students to pursue college-level courses and earn credits while still at high school. They are designed to encourage students from disadvantaged backgrounds to earn a postsecondary qualification: tuition is often discounted or free, and students can prepare for the academic and social requirements of college, while still having access to the supports available to high school students. Details of implementation vary – in most cases, qualified high school teachers or visiting college instructors deliver college-level courses in the high school. In other models, students take all or most of their courses on the college campus. Early college initiatives have grown across the United States over the past decades, but remain small (Hoffman et al., 2021[35]).

Rigorous evaluations, including randomised controlled trials, show that these programme are effective in achieving those goals. Dual enrolment programmes improve high school achievement, high school attendance and graduation, as well as college enrolment (What Works Clearinghouse, 2017[36]). A study of longer-term impacts of an early college credit programme found that students who won admission lotteries to the programme were more likely to enrol in college and complete a college degree (associate degree, certificate or bachelor’s degree) than those in the control group (Song et al., 2021[37]).

The following guiding principles can underpin strong pathways between upper secondary VET and higher levels of education:

Nobody should be locked out of higher-level learning opportunities because of a choice they made (or a route they were directed to) at some point in their education. From any vocational programme there should be a potential progression pathway that leads to higher levels.
Creating effective pathways is important for the attractiveness of vocational programmes. Young students with an interest in a vocational field will include some who are not attracted to academic forms of learning, as well as some who would like to keep their options open or who have their eyes set on tertiary education. Without realistic opportunities to access higher levels of education after VET, those in the latter groups will opt for general education.
Restrictions on eligibility to higher levels of education are more likely to damage the attractiveness of VET when lower secondary students are free to choose the orientation of their upper secondary programme (e.g. not constrained by school grades or early tracking) and where the educational offer open to VET graduates is limited (e.g. a small sector of higher vocational programmes poorly connected to university programmes).
Allowing direct access from vocational programmes to higher levels does not necessarily remove all hurdles – sometimes progression is rare and subsequent completion rates are low (see below). Similarly, restrictions on progression opportunities may be combined with a rich offer of tertiary programmes open to VET graduates and strong bridges that yield eligibility to a wide range of tertiary programmes, creating an effective system for career progression for VET graduates.

Supporting take-up and successful completion

It is important to complement the picture of available pathways with data on the take-up of those pathways. In some countries, there is a well-trodden path from VET to postsecondary or tertiary education. In others the route is long and filled with obstacles, so few VET graduates end up taking them successfully. Whether or not VET graduates continue to post-secondary education will also to some extent reflect labour market demand for such higher-level qualifications.

Figure 4.4. Distribution of educational attainment of students in ISCED level 5 and 6 programmes

Figure 4.5. Completion rates in bachelor’s level programmes (2020)

Comparative data on progression from VET to higher levels are patchy, but reveal much variation across countries in the share of VET students among tertiary students. In some countries progression to short-cycle tertiary education and bachelor’s level programmes is common (Figure 4.4): in Austria and Slovenia for example, VET graduates represent the majority of short-cycle tertiary students (OECD, 2022[29]) and they account for around half of bachelor’s level students. In Switzerland the short-cycle tertiary sector is small (less than 5% of new entrants to tertiary education) but bachelor’s level programmes commonly serve VET graduates: professional examinations (ISCED levels 6 and 7) and PET colleges (ISCED level 6) require a vocational upper secondary qualification for entry (although exemptions are possible). Even in universities and universities of applied sciences (which require VET graduates to pursue a bridging programme before entering) VET graduates represent nearly a third of new entrants.

Achieving high completion rates in tertiary education in a widespread challenge, especially for students with a vocational upper secondary background. In most countries with available data, completion rates are lower among vocational upper secondary graduates than among those holding a general upper secondary qualification (see Figure 4.5, noting that only full-time students are covered and those having completed a bridging programme may appear as general upper secondary graduates). At the same time, completion rates are high among VET graduates in some countries (e.g. Israel, Switzerland), and in Austria and Sweden they are higher than completion rates among general upper secondary graduates.

How can career guidance support smooth transitions?

As the world of work and the education and training landscape are changing, career guidance has become increasingly important for prospective and current VET learners. In this chapter, career guidance refers to services intended to assist individuals in making well-informed educational, training and occupational choices, as well as in managing their careers (OECD, 2004[38]; Musset and Mytna Kurekova, 2018[39]). Career guidance consists of a wide range of activities, such as i) career education activities, in which individuals learn about the world of work and develop career management skills; ii) career information activities, delivering information about courses and occupations, learning and career opportunities, progression routes and choices, as well as information on where to find help and advice, and how to access it; iii) individual career counselling activities, providing specific advice on career decisions; and iv) activities of direct contact with the world of work, to raise and broaden career aspirations (Musset and Mytna Kurekova, 2018[39]). Career guidance has several functions. Firstly, it informs young students and working adults about education, training and employment opportunities, including those in vocational fields. Secondly, career guidance helps individuals to reflect on their strengths and interests. For example, self-assessment tools help individuals explore their interests, current skills and potential for studying different subjects or pursuing different occupations.

Evidence shows that students' career choices are misaligned with labour market trends and needs in many countries, highlighting the need for more and better guidance. For instance, in countries like Canada and the United States, the occupations preferred by 15-year-old students are very different from the fastest-growing occupations in these economies (Mann et al., 2020[40]). Moreover, students only consider a relatively narrow set of job choices: across OECD countries, 36% of students who had a clear idea of what career they expected to have at the age of 30 expect to work in one of the ten most frequently cited occupations by young people in their country/economy. This is the case for 34% of socio-economically disadvantaged and 39% of socio-economically advantaged students (Figure 4.6), and is also more likely for girls than for boys (Mann et al., 2020[40]).3 Many teenagers ignore or are unaware of emerging jobs. The same data also reveal a narrowing of expectations as these shares increased by eight percentage points for boys and four percentage points for girls since the 2000 PISA survey.

Figure 4.6. Students who expect to work in one of the ten most cited occupations

To support students in making informed education and career decisions, it is paramount that countries have robust, efficient and effective career guidance services. Such services should give students a good understanding of the education and training options available, as some options, particularly those in VET, are often poorly understood by students (Musset and Mytna Kurekova, 2018[39]). In an EU survey, only 58% of respondents reported receiving information about VET options when deciding on their education at the upper secondary level (Figure 4.7). Moreover, there is a marked difference between general education and VET orientation: among those whose upper secondary education was primarily vocational, 72% say they receive VET information when deciding; this is true only for 48% of those whose upper secondary education was primarily general. Career guidance should also help students better understand different careers and broaden their aspirations – particularly those occupations linked to VET studies (Musset and Mytna Kurekova, 2018[39]). A lack of understanding about their career options can affect young students' decisions to join VET and their transitions from VET to the world of work or into further learning. Therefore, career guidance is crucial to support VET students' transition from education to work and between secondary and post-secondary studies. Effective career guidance encourages young students to reflect on who they are and want to become and think critically about the relationships between their educational choices and future economic life (Mann et al., 2020[40]). Parents and teachers are fundamental in young people's decisions. Employers can also play an important role in widening the options considered by young people and providing insights into the world of work, especially in VET programmes (Mann, Rehill and Kashfpakdel, 2018[41]).

Figure 4.7. Receiving information about vocational education

Career guidance is essential not only for young students but also for adults. New jobs are being created with the green and digital transition, while others are becoming obsolete, and many existing jobs are undergoing changes. This implies that some adults may need upskilling and reskilling and require support and guidance to develop the right skills and increase their employability. Evidence suggests that career guidance on VET can be especially relevant for supporting adults' upskilling and reskilling decisions in a dynamic labour market (CEDEFOP-OECD, 2021[43]). As highlighted in Chapter 3, many adults do not participate in training nor are interested in doing so. Effective career guidance can contribute to engaging adults in training and overcoming barriers. Career guidance reduces information asymmetries that adults may face, raises awareness of training options -including VET programmes-, enables the validation of skills, and supports job search (OECD, 2021[44]). Adults would benefit from receiving clear and updated information on job and training opportunities, as well as options for assessing the abilities and skills gained through work and previous learning experiences (see Chapter 3). Public employment services and counselling agencies are fundamental in providing career guidance for adults (OECD, 2021[44]) to support them in making informed decisions about their careers and professional development.

Supporting (prospective) VET students in making informed education and career decisions

Characteristics of career guidance for students in initial education

Although career guidance for students usually takes place in schools, career guidance services can be provided in different settings and through different channels (OECD, 2004[38]). Career guidance is provided to young students by both academic and vocational secondary education institutions, private career guidance providers, and post-secondary/tertiary education institutions looking to welcome new students. For instance, Chile’s biggest provider of tertiary vocational education (Instituto Nacional de Capacitación Profesional, INACAP) offers free in-person advice to students interested in higher-level vocational studies. This service includes tests of interests and skills, and a web tool mapping their test results to INACAP's offer of VET programmes (INACAP, 2021[45]).

In addition to face-to-face guidance activities, interactive online tools provide general information and tailored advice for students based on their skills and interests. Many countries have developed online portals with comprehensive information to make career decisions – often targeting learners of all ages – as a complement to face-to-face activities. Online portals sometimes include online chat systems or advice from specialists via phone or videoconference. For instance, in Scotland (United Kingdom), the portal 'My World of Work' is a platform containing information to support young students and adults in their career choice (Box 4.4). Users can browse vocational and academic courses and their associated occupational profiles in several industries. The website complements face-to-face guidance delivered in schools and dedicated guidance centres in Scotland.

Box 4.4. Comprehensive career guidance services in Scotland (United Kingdom)

Skills Development Scotland (SDS) is the national skills body that delivers Scotland’s career service in schools, centres and online. In addition, it has a telephone contact centre to provide career information and advice and talk about employability support.

Career services in schools

SDS’s professionally qualified careers staff support pupils, parents and teachers with a comprehensive range of career information, advice and guidance services. For pupils, this includes group activities to support the transition from primary to secondary education, group activities and one-on-one sessions in secondary education regarding subject choice and senior phase option choice, transition support for learners in the last years of secondary education who have not yet secured a post-school opportunity, one-to-one sessions for those who would benefit most from intensive support, and a drop-in service to speak to a school careers advisor. For parents and carers, it includes the possibility to attend subject choice one-to-one discussions with the pupils, as well as dedicated parent and carer engagement activities.

SDS Centres

SDS Centres are open on high streets across Scotland, with many of the career experts also working at local community venues. They support young people and adults develop lifelong career management skills to enable them to explore their career options and decide which route is the right one for them. The centres’ services include: i) career information, advice and guidance on career choices; ii) advice on the routes into a career, including jobs, apprenticeships, training and learning; iii) help with CVs, application forms and interviews; iv) careers events; v) insight into the local labour market; vi) access to Scotland’s careers web service, My World of Work; vii) redundancy support; and viii) support for parents and carers.

Online guidance portals

My World of Work is Scotland’s career information and advice website designed to support people of all ages in developing their career management skills. The portal includes advice and tools to help young students and adults learn about their interests, skills, training and work opportunities. It also supports individuals with customised information on possible career pathways that better match their skills, strengths and personality type. The website holds multiple interactive tools covering relevant education, training and career options, including apprenticeships, post-secondary education, and direct transition to work. Additionally, the portal contains information, advice and resources for parents and carers, teachers, and college and university staff to support career guidance. For instance, strategies, lesson plans and guidelines are available for teachers to support the delivery of the career education curriculum in the classroom for young people from different age groups and grades, following the Career Education Standard in Scotland (Skills Development Scotland, 2015[46]). In addition to My World of Work, Skills Development Scotland also manages the Apprenticeships.scot portal. It provides information about the different types of apprenticeships available, shares experiences of current and past apprentices, and finds current apprenticeship opportunities.

Source: Skills Development Scotland (2022[47]), Scotland’s Careers Services, www.skillsdevelopmentscotland.co.uk/what-we-do/scotlands-careers-services/.

Employers can be one of the best sources of advice and guidance for young people thinking about their future careers, especially for those considering enrolling in VET and for current VET students wanting to enter the labour market. Companies have deep knowledge about specific fields and industries, and can therefore provide valuable information to those interested in VET. By engaging with businesses, schools can give their students real-world work experiences, bring more relevance to their learning, and open their eyes to different career pathways. Employer engagement can facilitate direct contact with those working in different careers and expose young students directly to workplaces (Musset and Mytna Kurekova, 2018[39]). These strategies give young people a clearer idea about what jobs involve and supply trusted information about labour market demand, allowing students to become better prepared to make education and career decisions (Rehill, Kashefpakdel and Mann, 2017[48]). In the United Kingdom, for instance, local business leaders participate in career talks with students. They share insights, career guidance, lessons and tips, and information about their company and its sector to motivate and inspire young students to make informed decisions about their future. Companies can also offer short training programmes (traineeships) to young students for career mentoring and skills development (Education and Skills Funding Agency, 2017[49]). Extensive evidence demonstrates solid links between school-employer engagement and students’ learning and employment outcomes. From school-organised career talks with outside speakers to students’ enrolment in internships and other work-based learning opportunities, employers’ participation in career guidance activities has benefits for students’ motivation and attitude toward learning (Mann and Dawkins, 2014[50]), future economic prospects (Kashefpakdel and Percy, 2016[51]) and labour market placement (Mann, Rehill and Kashfpakdel, 2018[41]).

Participation in career guidance by students

Access to career guidance services varies substantially across countries (OECD, 2019[27]). According to PISA data, access to career guidance for 15-year-old students in schools is almost universal in countries like Ireland, Portugal and Sweden, whereas less than 10% of students have access in countries like Belgium, Greece, Hungary, Italy and Japan (Figure 4.8). Access to career guidance services in schools is usually determined by countries’ national policies and the school resources available. Also, within countries, there are substantial differences between schools and students in terms of access to career guidance (see next subsection for further details).

Figure 4.8. Students with access to one or more dedicated counsellor(s) providing career guidance in schools

Career guidance take-up depends on the type of activities offered, the information provided and the bodies in charge of delivering them (e.g. schools, employers). These elements affect the quality of the career guidance services and their perceived usefulness. According to a WorldSkills-OECD survey among young people (aged 18 to 24) at the end of general education and VET programmes in 18 countries, 89% of students had received some form of career guidance, of which 73% found it useful (Figure 4.9). Only 49% benefited from career counselling services provided by schools, although these were most likely to be deemed useful (77%). This is particularly the case for schools that mediate career guidance activities with employers or offer career guidance counselling, including career education on work-related activities (e.g. how to get a job, how to write a CV), which students find significantly useful (Worldskills and OECD, 2019[52]).

Figure 4.9. Participation and usefulness of career guidance activities provided by schools

Strengthening career guidance for students

Better informing students about the value, importance and availability of career guidance resources

Young students are not necessarily aware of the value of the information provided by career guidance services. Students usually trust other sources of information to make these decisions, including advice and information provided by their parents. However, parents usually lack information about the full range of options available. They can be unaware of the diversity of jobs available in the different sectors of the economy, which can affect students’ decisions (Musset and Mytna Kurekova, 2018[39]). This is especially the case for students from disadvantaged backgrounds, where families usually have less knowledge about the choices of tertiary programmes available to them. Moreover, parents usually favour general programmes over VET programmes, so this could have significant implications, especially for those students that may be potentially interested in VET-related occupations that are less well known (Musset and Mytna Kurekova, 2018[39]).

As highlighted in Figure 4.8, not all students have access to career guidance in schools. In those countries where career guidance is not readily available at schools, students may be unaware of the existing sources of information they can use to inform their career decisions. If they are not easily understandable or immediately available, students may not take the time to examine these resources. There are initiatives targeted at young students in several countries to increase their awareness of the importance of making well-informed career decisions. These initiatives include national or regional information campaigns, job fairs, and activities designed to give students an idea about the world of work. Campaigns such as the National Careers Week in the United Kingdom use media resources (including social media) to inform young students about career guidance activities and the importance of career-related decisions.

Tackling students’ misconceptions about VET programmes and careers

Many occupations targeted by VET and learning routes, such as apprenticeships, are stereotyped or poorly understood, contributing to skills shortages and the risk of school dropouts (CEDEFOP, 2021[53]). Despite the generally strong labour market outcomes of VET students, only a limited share of people would recommend it as a post-secondary education option (Figure 4.10). One possible reason is the misconception that VET only leads to the labour market and is a dead-end in education progression (see previous subsection for more details about progression pathways). According to CEDEFOP’s opinion survey on VET, only 16% of people in the European Union (EU) fully agree with the idea that VET allows continuing into higher education programmes. In addition, the survey also reveals that 70% of interviewees believe that VET is simply about manual work, despite the diversity of jobs which VET now leads to. Evidence suggests that the increases in the number of different career pathways VET can lead to have not been accompanied by improvements in the provision of career support to facilitate the transition to these pathways (Watts, 2010[54]), including those leading towards higher education (OECD, 2012[55]). More and better career guidance is needed to make individuals aware of the benefits and pathways.

Figure 4.10. How vocational education is perceived

This poor image of and misconceptions about VET contribute to a high concentration of students interested in only a limited set of career options, which are usually linked to academic degrees (OECD, 2019[27]) and not necessarily to the student’s academic profile and performance, leading to misaligned career expectations (OECD, 2019[27]). Evidence has shown that teenage career aspirations are not necessarily coherent with the projected labour demand (Maan et al., 2013[56]). For instance, there is a higher interest in VET-related jobs in some countries than in the VET pathways needed to prepare for these jobs, suggesting a misalignment between students’ occupational interests and educational aspirations. This suggests a lack of understanding of the role of vocational education (Hargreaves and Osborne, 2017[57]).

Career guidance can mitigate against misconceptions and wrong assumptions about VET by providing young people with fuller insights into the true nature of occupations to broaden and raise aspirations. One way to do so is by providing critical information on VET and its different career pathways, accompanied by direct exposure to these alternatives. For instance, in the Netherlands, the Council of VET schools (MBO Raad) developed a web portal (ditisMBO.nl) with basic but essential information on VET and career options. Additionally, ambassadors of fields of studies promote VET programmes by sharing their experiences, challenges, and achievements for each option. Similarly, the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science developed a VET programme choice portal (kiesMBO.nl) that provides detailed information on the different fields and career pathways. The portal also includes a matching game helping students navigate through all the VET options and find the programme that corresponds best with their interests and context (Box 4.5). In the Ile de France region in France, an apprenticeship fair (Forum de l’Alternance) is organised annually, where prospective apprentices can meet with employers and training providers, receive information on apprenticeship training, and participate in workshops to learn more about specific sectors. They also receive guidance on how to secure an apprenticeship (e.g. job interview coaching, CV writing tips).

Box 4.5. Choose VET website in the Netherlands: Attracting young people to pursue VET careers

‘Choose VET’ (Kies MBO) is a career choice portal with detailed information about all the upper-secondary VET possibilities in the Netherlands. The portal has targeted information for young people, their parents and teachers, helping them understand how VET works and supporting students in navigating all the available programmes. The portal informs students and parents about the VET programmes on offer, their fields of specialisation, the different work-based learning options within each programme, including internships and apprenticeships, and the multiple career pathways and occupations they can lead to. The portal features a VET programme matching game that helps students find the training that aligns best with their context. The portal also provides resources and tools for teachers, advisors and principals to support career education programmes (LOB) in the classroom or through student counselling services.

The portal is an initiative coordinated by the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science and developed by the Organisation for Vocational Education and Business (SBB), in collaboration with the MBO Council (MBO Raad), the Secondary Education Council (VO raad), organisation of young people and business in secondary education (Biond). These parties update figures and information about professions, training, and the labour market. Young people organisations are closely involved in the design and development of the portal to improve the target group’s experience.

Source: Ministerie van Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap (2022[58]), Kies MBO (Choosing VET), www.kiesmbo.nl/.

Collecting and disseminating information on labour market outcomes

Information about labour market outcomes and prospects of different VET programmes and pathways is crucial for career guidance. Evidence for the Netherlands suggests that recent VET graduates who made extensive use of labour market information to guide their education choice have better labour market outcomes than graduates for whom labour market information was a less critical factor in their education choice (Fouarge, Künn and Punt, 2017[59]). Career guidance that is based on skills needs information helps students (and adults) make an informed decision on education and training investment (OECD, 2016[60]). Providing information on skills requirements and labour market outcomes can improve students’ beliefs about job opportunities and wages, shifting their education and occupation preferences (De Koning, Dur and Fouarge, 2022[61]). In the Netherlands, for instance, VET students who receive labour market information tend to change their favourite occupation towards an occupation with better labour market prospects. Similarly, they select the field of specialisation related to occupations with better labour market prospects and choose post-secondary education programmes with higher expected earnings (Hofer, Zhivkovikj and Smyth, 2020[62]).

Despite efforts to provide accurate information to young individuals that allow them to make informed career decisions, detailed information on VET outcomes is not readily available or is not easy to access in many countries. For instance, disaggregated labour market outcomes data, such as employment rates or annual income for graduates from different programmes or performing a specific occupation, is not always available. When it is available, it is not always presented in an attractive and accessible way. Moreover, forecasts of future demand for occupations targeted by VET are often lacking. Some countries have made special efforts to gather detailed information on labour market outcomes from different VET programmes. Information such as employability and salaries is gathered through labour force surveys or similar data sources and made available in an accessible format. Likewise, several countries provide detailed information about occupations and, in some cases, link it to programmes of study leading to those occupations. For instance, the Danish national guidance portal offers many resources to make informed decisions, including detailed job and career information directly linked to each VET programme (Box 4.6).

Box 4.6. Informing about jobs and VET career opportunities

National Guidance Portal (Denmark)

The national guidance portal (www.ug.dk) is an ICT-based career information and guidance portal that provides young people and adults with relevant career information to make qualified decisions about their education, training and careers. The portal aims to offer precise and updated information for everyone in Denmark seeking job, education, business and labour market information. The information focuses on specific target groups, including young people seeking general and vocational upper secondary education.

In addition to general labour market information, the website includes more than 500 job descriptions organised in 20 professional areas (e.g. Construction, plant and other crafts; Food, nutrition and restaurant; Industrial Production, Textile and Clothing, IT and Electronics, among others.). Each job description is linked to one or more education and training opportunities and vice versa (CEDEFOP, 2016[63]). Based on this information, the portal offers ‘The job compass’ (Jobkompasset). This interactive tool helps students translate their interests in potential occupations and fields of education and provides detailed information about the type of jobs, workplace, income, and future opportunities relevant to each field.

My Skills (Australia)

The My Skills website (www.myskills.gov.au) is the national directory of training in Australia supporting users to make informed choices through searching and comparing available vocational education and training (VET) courses, and providers. For each course, users can find the average estimated fee, information the availability of subsidies or VET student loans, average course duration, student satisfaction, and availability of online learning options. Users can also see the percentage of graduates in employment further training options, the percentage of graduates who improved their employment status, and the median salary of graduates. The top three occupations and industries employing the graduates are also shown (based on information collected through graduate surveys), providing an indication of the labour market outcomes of students. My Skills also features a tool that allows users to find occupations that match their interests, experience, and qualifications.

Providing information on financing options for prospective VET students

Making informed education choices also means considering the costs involved for the different options. Information about financing options for VET students is not always available or easy to understand (Davis et al., 2019[64]). In most cases, information about tuition fees for VET programmes is readily available, but the different support measures for covering such costs are not detailed or are too complex (Evans and Boatman, 2019[65]). Eligibility for public funding and the amounts covered are usually based on individuals’ characteristics and subject to specific eligibility requirements. In addition to public support, some educational institutions offer special payment arrangements and scholarships to cover students’ tuition fees and living expenses, adding to the complexity for prospective students.

A lack of systematised information on financing options makes the decision process for students (and their parents) substantially complex. This can discourage young students who are financially risk-averse or unaware of the economic benefits of pursuing any educational programme, including VET. Based on PISA 2018 data, on average, only 3 out of 10 students know how to find information about student financing (Figure 4.11), and this proportion is even lower among students from a disadvantaged background – i.e. those who might arguably need it the most. National financing bodies and education and training providers are crucial in making this information transparent and readily available. Prospective students should be able to easily compare the cost implications of the various study options they are considering, including a comparison between VET and general or academic studies. A standardisation of the available information, including the application process for funding, can increase the number and diversity of students enrolled in VET.

Figure 4.11. Students who reported knowing how to find information about student financing

In several countries, governments have managed to systematise and centralise the information provided by training providers and the government on grants, loans, and other financial support. In England (UK), for instance, the student finance calculator offers information on public funding and repayment schemes based on students’ study interests and sociodemographic characteristics (Box 4.7). In the United States, financial aid professionals provide information on financing options for pursuing further studies. These professionals are part of the Federal Student Aid office (FSA) from the Department of Education and provide information and guidance to prospective students on financial aid and loan options, including support in finding training announcements and linking to other federal or state student aid.

In VET systems with apprenticeship and internship schemes, it is also essential to provide information about salaries and benefits that learners receive during these company placements. Without information on whether or not work placements are paid and minimum and usual salaries for apprentices or interns, prospective learners do not have the full picture to make an informed decision. Most of the information available about the cost and benefits in this matter is oriented towards employers. In Spain, for instance, employers can access guidelines about how to proceed with apprenticeship agreements, pay and conditions, and the financial incentives available. All this information is centralised on the website of the Public Employment Service (Servicio Público de Empleo Estatal, SEPE). However, the information about apprenticeships and internships’ salaries and support measures for learners is spread over different sources and sometimes lacks clarity. Most websites present information mainly on the requirements and the apprenticeship opportunities, as shown in the SEPE portal.

Box 4.7. The Student Finance Calculator in England (United Kingdom): Providing information about the financial cost of training

The Student Finance Calculator is part of an online toolkit to support students in getting funding for post-secondary education programmes. The objective is to inform (prospective) students who can benefit from the different loans and financial support offered by the UK Government’s Department of Education. This toolkit provides information on the eligibility for financial support according to students’ socio-economic characteristics and the type of studies or training pursued. The detailed description of the different finance alternatives is provided by characteristics of the studies, intensity (part or full time) or type of student (new or continuing full student).

The Student Finance Calculator estimates the tuition fee and education maintenance loan students can get and how much extra student funding or financial aid can be granted (e.g. for students with care responsibilities or disabilities). Additionally, the website offers valuable resources about how to pay back, how much to repay and when to do it (payments schedule). Students can also access guidelines about the application process.

Source: UK Government (2022[66]) Student finance calculator, www.gov.uk/student-finance-calculator.

Targeting disadvantaged students

Access to career guidance varies significantly across countries, but also within countries. PISA 2018 data show an important gap in participation in career guidance between advantaged and disadvantaged students in many countries (Figure 4.12.). Across the OECD, students from disadvantaged schools are less likely to participate in career guidance than those in the most advantaged schools. This fact is particularly striking since students from disadvantaged backgrounds exhibit the most significant challenges in making an informed decision about their careers (Thiele et al., 2016[67]; Yates et al., 2010[68]).

Figure 4.12. Schools where one or more dedicated counsellor(s) provide career guidance

Career guidance is fundamental for broadening and potentially raising student aspirations and expectations to boost social mobility. Socio-economic context can play an important role in people’s aspirations and expectations (Musset and Kureková, 2018[69]; Mann, Denis and Percy, 2020[70]). Young people from rural areas, migrants, and those with low socio-economic status are prone to experience low social mobility and short-sighted career aspirations, particularly if they do not benefit from career guidance (Musset and Kureková, 2018[69]). Low aspirations mentality generate an invisible ceiling on youth educational and labour outcomes. Disadvantaged youth are much more likely to settle for work demanding lower skills than the ones accumulated during their lifetime (CEDEFOP, 2016[71]). Moreover, young people from disadvantaged backgrounds are most likely to demonstrate misaligned expectations due to limited understanding of the role and tasks involved in each occupation, as well as a lack of knowledge of the skills and abilities required (Mann et al., 2020[40]).

Career guidance can help break the influence of socio-economic background and disrupt intergenerational cycles by motivating young people to engage with more (and with the right) education and training and potentially increasing educational and labour outcomes. Disadvantaged students could benefit from inspirational stories and success cases from people with similar backgrounds who have managed to overcome difficulties and find their career paths. Through exposure to the people who do different jobs and from different sectors, young people have the chance to challenge class-based (and gender-based, see below) stereotyping and broaden their aspirations. In France, for instance, the programme Ropes of Success (Cordées de la Reussité) allows young students from rural areas and disadvantaged locations to connect with students and graduates from different VET and university programmes. The Ropes of Success programme aim to expand students’ career aspirations by sharing insights from mentors' experiences during their studies and their transition to the labour market (Box 4.8).

Box 4.8. Ropes of success in France: Expanding disadvantaged students’ aspirations

Ropes of success (Cordées de la Réussite) is a career guidance support programme aimed at building equal opportunities. The programme’s objective is to fight against self-censorship and increase the academic ambition of students by providing support, information, and advice throughout their entire education.

The programme is based on partnerships between higher education institutions and upper secondary schools. The "head of the rope" can be a higher education institution, High School Preparatory Classes (Classes Préparatoires aux Grandes Écoles, CPGE) or Higher Technical Section (Section de Techniciens Supérieur, STS). The "roped" can be general, technological or vocational upper secondary schools. These upper secondary schools must be located in pre-selected cities in priority neighbourhoods or remote rural areas. The objective is to provide career guidance support to the most isolated and disadvantaged students.

These partnerships take multiple forms and set up various actions to support students in defining their career pathways. One is through mentorships, where students can meet and interact with higher education students and graduates from different programmes. Pupils are exposed to different types of training, courses and fields of education, and information about labour opportunities and occupations. The support method is gradual and tailored-made. Depending on each student’s specific needs, mentors’ participation can be more intensive and frequent. Nevertheless, mentorship is not limited to a single connection between a pupil and a student/graduate. It can be carried out through a global support programme to benefit all students from a participating school.

Source: Onisep (2022[72]), The ropes of sucess (Cordées de la Réussite), www.cordeesdelareussite.fr/.

Breaking gender stereotypes

Gender stereotypes can considerably influence students’ educational aspirations and career choices, with substantial repercussions on the labour market and society more broadly. PISA data show that girls have higher career expectations than boys at the same level of proficiency, but they are often narrowly focused, for example, in medicine and teaching professions (Mann et al., 2020[40]). Girls also often turn away from STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) professions (OECD, 2019[27]). These gender differences are substantial among VET students (Figure 4.13): girls are overrepresented among graduates from VET programmes in health (where girls account for 83% of graduates) and education (78%) fields, while they are strongly underrepresented in engineering and ICT programmes (18%). Gendered choices contribute to gender segmentation in the labour market, with females often being concentrated in fields which have lower completion rates, lower pay and weaker opportunities for progression (Beck, Fuller and Unwin, 2006[73]).

Figure 4.13. Distribution of graduates from VET per field of education by gender

Providing support and career guidance to all students is imperative to break gender stereotypes in school and beyond. Helping students pursue personal and career goals, independently of their gender, is crucial for developing a more inclusive labour market. Schools can counter stereotypes and help students cultivate a broader perspective on career options, including science, through better career options and better career information (CEDEFOP, 2021[53]). However, many studies find that career guidance services of the same quality are not always available to all students (Mann, Denis and Percy, 2020[70]). Girls are less likely to receive career guidance directly connected to the labour market (Mann et al., 2020[40]; Musset and Kureková, 2018[69]), and for example, are less likely than boys to attend work-site visits or job fairs or participate in an internship or job shadowing (Figure 4.14).

Research suggests that gender stereotyping can deter girls and boys from pursuing specific careers and can be countered by improved information (Brussino and McBrien, 2022[75]). Certain occupations appear so inaccessible to those not of the dominant gender that richer approaches based on first-hand experiences are called for, especially among VET programmes. Employer engagement and direct exposure to the world of work are essential to enable young people to see for themselves and explore whether it is achievable to go against gender norms (Musset and Kureková, 2018[69]). In Canada, for example, young women have the opportunity to participate in workshops and job immersion in skilled trades and technologies occupations to experience trades jobs first-hand (Box 4.9).

Figure 4.14. Participation in career development activities, by gender, 2018

Box 4.9. Skilled Futures for women in Nova Scotia, Canada: Boosting girls’ participation in skilled trades careers

Skilled Futures is a series of one-day career exploration events for junior high and high school students in Nova Scotia, Canada. The programme offers the opportunity to participate in interactive skilled trade and technology workshops. It is offered to groups in-person at training facilities throughout the province of Nova Scotia and through a virtual experience including informative videos and activities related to different trade sectors.

The Skilled Futures programme has several chapters. One is Skilled Futures for Women, which introduces female students to career opportunities in skilled trades and technologies. In this chapter, girls have the opportunity to explore the possibility of a career in different fields by attending workshops and visiting workplaces. Skilled Futures for Women also shares valuable information, tips and stories on its website. Recently, it has included a one-on-one interview series with women to inspire young girls to pursue their future careers in skilled trades and technologies. These women share their experiences and success stories working in various skilled trade industries. Moreover, the Skills Future programme runs a competition at the post-secondary and apprentice levels where all participants, including young women, can perform and show their skills and abilities in trade-related fields such as carpentry, bricklaying and electrical installation.

The Skills Canada - Nova Scotia office runs the Skilled Futures and its chapters. It involves multiple partners, from trade colleges to companies and organisations relevant in each sector.

Source: Skill Canada Nova Scotia (2022[76]), Helping young Nova Scotians become job-ready through skills training, www.skillsns.ca/.

Providing career guidance at an early stage can also help prevent the emergence of stereotypical perceptions of specific educational and career paths (Howard et al., 2015[77]). For instance, Denmark celebrates girls’ day for students from 5th grade by providing information about occupations where women are underrepresented, promoting STEM professions, and offering multiple interactive activities where companies and organisations actively participate. Similarly, in Germany, secondary students celebrate boy’s days which are aimed at attracting young males into the types of jobs where their gender is underrepresented, such as kindergarten teacher, nurse and florist.

Investing in the quality and effectiveness of career guidance activities

While there is an apparent demand for more and better career guidance (Moote and Archer, 2017[78]), relatively little is known about what works and what does not. There is widespread concern that current career guidance services are relatively poorly sourced in schools, staff are inadequately prepared to deal with labour market issues, and the advice may lack objectivity, which may limit students’ career choices (Watss, 2009[79]). Very often, the implementation of career guidance programmes is not following the needs of the learners, and they usually fall into routine administrative activities, handling cases in a narrow view (Martaningsih, 2018[80]).

The need for more effective and high-quality career guidance and counselling underlines the importance of monitoring and evaluation systems to ensure service quality. Yet, countries face limitations in developing quality assurance mechanisms and guidance provision approaches. Career guidance services lack consistent evaluation and monitoring systems to properly track the quality, weaknesses, obstacles to service implementation, and potential utilisation of the programme and the activities involved, which may hinder career guidance effectiveness (Martaningsih, 2018[80]). To a certain degree, this is due to the lack of general frameworks for designing and computing systematically relevant indicators. The evidence suggests that even when data are used for accountability purposes, short-term user feedback, improving services delivery, improving training programmes for career practitioners, or improving career guidance tools, some governments lack the resources and knowledge to use the information for monitoring and evaluating purposes. Governments also have limited experience implementing these methodologies for this purpose (CEDEFOP, 2022[81]).

Some specific guidance service providers may have adopted their own monitoring systems or data collection routines, whether internal or external; however, methodologies and baseline indicators are very diverse. There is a need for standardised and coordinated monitoring and systematic evaluation of career guidance activities (Barnes et al., 2020[82]). Especially among career guidance providers in situ, there is no agreement on what are relevant results of the interventions, ranging from variations in employment status or qualification attainment, career learning outcomes, wellbeing, career progression or satisfaction levels, or a combination of all (Percy and Dodd, 2020[83]) (McCash, Hooley and Robertson, 2021[84]). Nonetheless, evaluation and monitoring systems can be adequately established, as was done in VET upper secondary schools in Egypt and Germany, where the assessment focuses on a specific set of indicators (e.g. employability, labour market and career opportunities). This may limit the scope of the analysis but allows for better tracking of potential improvements (ILO and GIZ, 2018[85]).

To evidence the performance of career guidance services, accurate observation and measurement through programme evaluation activities are needed. As a first step, a reliable framework must define principles on how career guidance should be delivered to support young people to make informed decisions. In England (UK), for example, the Gatsby Benchmark was developed to define what world-class career provision in education looks like and to provide a framework for organising the career provision at any school or higher education institution (Box 4.10). The Careers and Enterprise Company supports the implementation of the benchmarks with a national network of support, resources and targeted funding. It has conducted research establishing a group of indicators, supported by the University of Derby, which have gathered evidence on the effectiveness of the benchmarks.

Box 4.10. A pilot of the Gatsby Benchmarks in England (United Kingdom): Assessing career guidance services

About the benchmarks

The Gatsby Benchmarks are a framework for good career guidance developed to support secondary schools and colleges in providing students with the best possible career education, information, advice and guidance. Based on international best practices, the benchmarks set out what a world-class career guidance system looks like. The benchmarks are part of the career strategy, launched in December 2018, and statutory guidance for secondary schools and colleges since 2018.

The framework includes eight benchmarks that aim to improve career guidance programme: 1) a stable careers programme; 2) learning from career and labour market information, 3) addressing the need of each pupil; 4) linking curriculum learning to careers; 5) encounters with employers and employees; 6) experiences of workplaces; 7) encounter with further and higher education; and 8) personal guidance. These benchmarks result from analysing good practices in six countries (Canada, Finland, Germany, Hong Kong (China), Ireland and the Netherlands) where career guidance and educational outcomes are considered good. The conclusion of this analysis is presented in detail in the Good Career Guidance report (The Gatsby Foundation, 2017[86]).

About the pilot

A pilot was set up to explore how schools and colleges could best systematically attempt to implement the Gatsby Benchmarks, evaluate how they were implemented, and identify what impacts might result from this. The International Centre for Guidance Studies (iCeGS) at the University of Derby chose the North East Local Enterprise Partnership (NE LEP) as a place to host the pilot. The participant education providers received limited funding and worked with a pilot facilitator to implement the eight benchmarks over four years.

The evidence suggests that implementing the Benchmarks produced favourable results (Hanson et al., 2021[87]). At the start of the pilot, 50% of the schools and colleges were achieving no benchmarks, and no institution was achieving more than three. But after two years, over 85% reached between six and eight benchmarks, with three institutions achieving all eight. Beyond the benchmark implementation rate increase, the evaluation assesses multiple student outcomes presenting positive impacts. For instance, the student career-readiness score (a measure of preparedness for work) showed significant increases in all year groups across the four years of the evaluation. The teaching staff also observed fundamental changes in learners’ engagement in class. The participant schools saw a fall in the number of NEET students from 50% to 14% in two years.

Source: The Gatsby Foundation (2017[86]), The Gatsby Benchmarks, Good Career Guidance, www.goodcareerguidance.org.uk/; Hanson et al. (2021[87]), An Evaluation of the North East of England Pilot of the Gatsby Benchmarks of Good Guidance, www.gatsby.org.uk/uploads/education/ne-pilot-evaluation-full-report.pdf.

Informing adults about learning opportunities in VET

Characteristics of career guidance for adults

Career guidance for adults is usually provided by public employment services, private providers, and education and training institutions (OECD, 2021[44]). In some cases, employers can also provide career guidance to their employees to support their professional development and career decisions. Usually, these services provide information about a broad range of education and training options, including formal education and training (e.g. VET, higher education programmes, second chance programmes) and non-formal learning opportunities.

Career guidance services for adults usually involve one (or more) of the following activities: i) providing information to adults about existing career alternatives in the labour market based on their professional profile and interests; ii) identifying and discussing users’ professional strengths and areas for improvement; iii) providing users with information about education and training alternatives to strengthen their professional profiles and improve their employability; and iv) informing users about labour market trends in different industries so that they can learn about growing occupations and emerging jobs, and their related education and skills requirements.

The delivery of career guidance for adults is still done mainly through face-to-face sessions with career counsellors. However, career guidance services have diversified in the last decades to remote alternatives, including telephone, instant messaging or video conference (OECD, 2021[44]). Moreover, and as previously discussed, face-to-face delivery is usually complemented with online information and interactive tools. These can help adults understand labour market trends and identify relevant education and training alternatives to upskill and reskill (including VET).

Career guidance can also provide information on financial and non-financial incentives to support adults in undertaking those activities (e.g. subsidised VET courses, loans, fee waivers, apprenticeship salaries). Career guidance for adults is often targeted at groups that are most in need of training or face large barriers to training participation (see examples in Box 4.11). In many countries, targeted career guidance services are provided to low-skilled adults, as they generally have low participation rates in adult learning. In Iceland, for example, specialised career and vocational counsellors provide career guidance to low-skilled adults across the country (Box 4.11). Moreover, various countries have been providing dedicated career guidance services to older adults, recognising the need to help them navigate a changing labour market when they want to improve their career prospects or search for a career change. In Switzerland, for instance, the VIAMIA programme is tailored to middle-aged adults looking for information on professional development activities, such as VET studies. The programme is supported by a wealth of online complementary information and tools (Box 4.11).

Participation of adults in career guidance

Nearly all OECD countries have put in place some sort of career guidance for adults. These services are provided by a variety of actors, including public employment services (PES), dedicated public career guidance services, private providers, associations and social partners. According to the OECD Survey of Career Guidance of Adults (SCGA), 43% of adults have spoken with a career guidance advisor over the past five years across the six analysed countries (Chile, France, Germany, Italy, New Zealand and the United States). Most adults who used career guidance services had multiple interaction with advisors. OECD (2021[44]) shows that the vast majority of adults who do not use career guidance services simply do not feel they need to (57%). Older adults and those with lower levels of education are over-represented in this group. Another 20% of non-users reported not knowing that career guidance services existed. Other less significant barriers include lack of time (for work or personal reasons) (11%), high costs (4%), inability to find a career guidance advisor (3%), poor quality of services (2%), or inconvenient time or place of service delivery (2%).

In general, adults are not actively looking for information about learning opportunities. According to data from the European Adult Education Survey, one in three adults (35%) have searched for information on formal and non-formal education and training (Figure 4.15). Rates spanned from less than 20% in Hungary, Lithuania and Türkiye, to over 50% in Denmark, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and Slovenia. According to OECD (2021[44]) analysis, there is evidence that countries with more robust career guidance services have a higher share of adults actively searching for information on learning possibilities.

Box 4.11. Examples of career guidance services for low-skilled and older adults

Iceland

In Iceland, Lifelong Learning Centres provide education and career counselling with qualified counsellors specialising in education and vocational counselling with a specific focus on low-skilled adults. The objective is to strengthen the variety and quality of education and encourage general participation in lifelong learning and education. The centres’ reach is broad: there are dozens of Lifelong Learning Centres around the country, including in sparsely populated areas, which conduct around 10 000 guidance counselling sessions with adults with low qualification levels per year (OECD, 2019[88]).

Flanders (Belgium)

In Flanders (Belgium), lifelong guidance in formal adult education is under the responsibility of adult education centres (CVOs) and centres for basic education (CBEs). Both centres offer learners of different characteristics guidance and orientation services, including study support and career counselling. Also, several socio-cultural organisations in alliance with CVOs have initiated lifelong guidance projects at the province level explicitly aimed at reaching low-skilled adults. For instance, Leerwinkel (learning shop) offers detailed information and guidance about learning opportunities, including basic courses such as language programmes oriented to immigrants (Departement Onderwijs en Vorming, 2022[89]). Moreover, the Flemish Public Employment Service (VDAB) offers job placement, training and education, career guidance and outplacement services. VDAB provides guidance to specific target groups, including older adults (55+), individuals with special needs, socially disadvantaged groups, and non-Dutch speakers (Euroguidance, 2022[90]). VDAB provides specialised guidance for low-skilled adults offering suitable job opportunities and additional information on job-relevant training options (VDAB, 2017[91]).

Denmark

In Denmark, Centres for Adults Education and Continuing Training provide guidance to both employed and unemployed adults. At each of the thirteen centres, guidance counsellors provide free advice to companies and individuals. The guidance includes the provision of information about further education and training programmes available to adults. People outside of the labour market or low-skilled adults can get an overview of various education and training programmes by receiving an individual plan for their further education and training, which can lead them towards their career target (CEDEFOP, 2016[63]).

Switzerland

In Switzerland, the VIAMIA initiative of the confederation and the cantons offers a free professional assessment to people aged 40 and above. Career counsellors provide personalised advice based on individuals’ professional situation, goals and needs, as well as support in exploring job and educational opportunities for career development. The initiative includes several components: analysis of the current professional status, assessment of knowledge and skills, information about labour market trends and insights about how to develop individuals’ professional potential through training and further education, targeting mainly adults in need of up- and re-skilling. VIAMIA offers in-person career guidance services in all cantons, but it also has an online portal for carrying out independent analysis. (DuALPlus, 2022[92]).

Figure 4.15. Adults’ search for information on learning opportunities for themselves

The use of career guidance services also varies within countries, and evidence suggests that the groups most in need of advice – e.g. those who are already struggling in the labour market and/or need training but are not getting it – are the ones who have limited access to career support. Connecting adults who need career guidance the most with available services is challenging but could improve training participation rates and labour market outcomes for disadvantaged groups. Figure 4.16 shows differences in the use of career guidance services between adults with different personal and work characteristics in eleven OECD countries (OECD, 2021[44]). The most significant gaps are found between prime-age adults (25-54) and older adults (over 54) (18 percentage points), followed by high- and lower-educated adults (17 percentage points) and adults living in cities and rural areas (8 percentage points). Employed adults are more likely to engage with career guidance than unemployed ones. By contrast, other potentially disadvantaged groups take up more career guidance than their counterparts. This is the case, for example, for foreign-born adults (2 percentage points difference compared to native-born adults), who may be more proactive in seeking advice and guidance as they have more unstable work conditions (OECD, 2021[44]). Persons working in occupations with a high risk of automation also tend to be more likely to use career guidance services than those in occupations with lower risk (OECD, 2021[44]).

There are several reasons why adults seek career guidance and use multiple means to access career information (e.g. on line). The most common reasons to seek career guidance are related to job-search and job-progression (59%), followed by receiving information on education and training options (25%). In both cases, providing up-to-date information on labour market needs, as well as employment, education, and labour-relevant training opportunities such as VET programmes, play an important role. Instead of seeking advice from career guidance advisors, many adults look independently online for information which in most cases is about education and training programmes (35%).

Figure 4.16. Use of career guidance services, by socio-economic and demographic characteristics

Helping adults find their way to VET

There is a common perception in some countries that career guidance and VET programmes mainly concern young people in school. Nonetheless, there is substantial demand for career guidance among adults aimed at providing information and support regarding VET options (Watts, 2010[54]). Building a solid career guidance service system is therefore imperative to ensure that all adults, including the most disadvantaged, can access the assistance they need to make well-informed education, training and career choices. This section covers the main challenges and opportunities that career guidance services face to provide adults with information and support regarding their re- and up-skilling decisions. In addition to the challenges described below, many of the challenges and opportunities for strengthening career guidance for young people that are discussed above apply similarly for adults, including issues related to information on funding and the need to break gender stereotypes.

Fostering career changes

In an era of changing skill needs, due to factors such as the green and digital transition, some workers may need to change sectors and/or occupations. For example, 14% of workers in OECD countries are in jobs that are likely to become fully automated in the coming years, and these workers need to reskill to move into less automatable jobs (Nedelkoska and Quintini, 2018[94]). Likewise, the green transition is likely to displace workers from polluting sectors, who require opportunities for reskilling to transfer into greener jobs. However, as discussed in Chapter 3, many workers do not participate in training and have limited motivation to do so. In fact, certain workers with a high probability of needing reskilling in the not-so-distant future, such as those in jobs at high risk of automation, have relatively low training participation rates.

Lack of preparedness and limited access to guidance and information affects adults’ attitude toward learning (Topală, 2014[95]), hindering their possibility of reassessing career paths and considering different career options. Some adults see changing careers as a risk, especially those who have been in the same sector for many years and low-skilled workers. These adults may have a limited understanding of potential retraining pathways and require additional support to reflect on career moves and retraining efforts that better align with labour market needs (OECD, 2021[26]). Similarly, a career change for most adults may imply a return to school, which requires time and resources (Donohue, 2007[96]). As discussed in Chapter 3, VET could be an attractive pathway for adults who want or need to reskill, as it provides opportunities closely linked to the labour market. Finding the proper training can be troublesome without guidance and support, especially for adults struggling mentally to reassemble their career blueprint.

Counsellors and advisors have an essential role in helping to overcome these limitations. On the one hand, they can provide insights about the relevance of finding new career paths, and on the other, access to clear information about the training options that can facilitate such transitions. In Germany, career guidance and support are provided to ‘Quereinsteiger’ (i.e. career changers), helping them get the right skills and fashioning their CVs to become more competitive in the labour market. The Federal Government of Germany has developed a website providing detailed information on reskilling pathways and job opportunities for people interested in changing career paths. In Switzerland, ‘Orientation.ch’ is an online portal providing career guidance and support to adults who want to change jobs and professions. The portal provides a guideline for adults to work on a multi-step career path plan which involves reflecting on one’s interests and skills, getting informed about job opportunities, defining career expectations and exploring learning opportunities (Box 4.12).

Box 4.12. ‘Career orientation’ for changing career path in Switzerland: Providing guidance for planning a new career path

The Swiss Center of Professional Education Services (SDBB | CSFO) developed a portal dedicated to providing career guidance and information to young people and adults called “Orientation.ch”. The platform contains comprehensive information on professions and further education. With www.orientation.ch/carriere, a new section of the platform was developed in 2021 to address adults who are concerned with the development of their careers without directly considering further education programmes. This is in line with the Swiss national strategy for career guidance adopted by the Swiss Conference of Ministers of Education in 2021, according to which adults should be made more aware of the importance of proactive career management (Berufsbildung, 2021[97]).

The aim of the platform is guiding adults interested in changing career paths, either by moving to a different position in the same sector, moving to a different sector conducting a similar task, or changing both position and sector. The platform provides information for users to reflect on their motivation for changing careers. It also has 12 short questionnaires in three areas: Assessing skills, knowledge and level of education; Evaluating professional motivation and interest; Assessing adults’ knowledge of the options and opportunities available. Based on the information collected, adults can plan their transition toward a new career path by following five steps: 1) Knowing their interests and skills; 2) defining professional expectations; 3) Reconciling private and professional life; 4) learning about professional development opportunities; and 5) making a choice a reality. There is also complementary information available at the canton level about labour market trends and training opportunities, including the costs, time, and requirements.

Source: Orientation (2022[98]), Change jobs and grow (Changer d’emploi & évoluer), https://carriere.orientation.ch/objectifs-de-carriere/changer-demploi-evoluer.

Raising awareness about career guidance services for adults

As described above, many adults report not seeing a need for career guidance support or not being aware of existing services. As career guidance can support all adults in making better educational and career decisions, awareness of the need and importance should be raised.

Raising awareness about career guidance requires actions on many fronts. Some strategies are more effective than others, and their effectiveness often depends on the target population and their interests. Among the countries participating in the OECD Survey of Career Guidance for Adults, most of the career guidance beneficiaries received information about the service through Public Employment Services (PES) (20%) (Figure 4.17). Another 18% received information from a friend or family member, and another 17% from their employer. This reveals the heterogeneity among career guidance users, with the unemployed being more likely to obtain information via PES and workers more likely to be informed by employers. This highlights that different mechanisms are needed to inform and increase awareness of guidance services.

Figure 4.17. Advertisement of career guidance services for adults

In recognition of the lack of awareness about the importance of career guidance for adults, several countries have set up public career guidance centres with the purpose of providing guidance to all adults, regardless of employment status, age or income (OECD, 2021[44]) (see centres in Scotland in Box 4.4). These centres are funded by the state and usually have specialised staff with knowledge about the wide range of possibilities for professional development, including VET studies for adults. In some cases, such centres are focused on working with older adults or other groups with particular training needs (Box 4.11). Recently, and especially since the COVID-19 pandemic, many of their services moved online or now include online tools as part of their offer.

Additional tools and strategies can be implemented to raise awareness of such centres and of career guidance more broadly. Having ready-to-use information about the providers of career guidance can help adults navigate the landscape and find the providers that are most relevant for them. For instance, in France, through the website "Mon conseil en évolution professionnelle, Mon CEP", adults access tailored information about the importance of career guidance and the different providers offering career guidance services (Box 4.13). In Greece, the National Organisation for the Certification of Qualifications and Vocational Guidance (EOPPEP) requests private career guidance providers to register in an effort to inform the public about available programmes and promote quality among private providers (Box 4.13). In addition, EOPPEP developed an online Lifelong Career Development Portal with various career development tools and services.

Box 4.13. Informing people about career guidance services

Mon CEP (France)

In France, all employed and unemployed adults have access to free career development advice, conseil en évolution professionnelle (CEP). These services are delivered by a set of public and private providers. For jobseekers, the services are delivered by the PES. Users can find their professional development advisor on the website "Mon conseil en évolution professionnelle, Mon CEP". Depending on their personal situation (e.g. employment status, age, disability) and location, the website forwards the user to the specialised CEP organisation in charge. On the websites of these organisations, users find information on the means of communication (individual or group counselling, online or in-person) and other helpful information.

Employers must inform their employees of the right to use the CEP as part of the biannual professional interview. The Labour Code provides for a professional interview every two years between the employee and the employer. This mandatory meeting is intended to help the worker consider professional development and training prospects.

Lifelong Career Development Portal (Greece)

The National Organisation for the Certification of Qualifications and Vocational Guidance (EOPPEP), operating under the supervision of the Minister of Education and Religious Affairs, has a register of private career guidance providers. The register has the dual purpose of informing the public about available programmes and promoting quality among private career guidance providers. Career guidance providers included in this catalogue receive preferential support from the Ministry of Labour when applying for European programmes as providers of career guidance services.

In addition, the EOPPEP has developed the Lifelong Career Development Portal, which provides services for career development and mobility information targeted to adults of all ages. People can register to the portal and receive newsletters and regular information on all career guidance services, including online career tests, e-counselling services and an online Lifelong Career Portfolio development tool.

Source: MON-CEP (2022[99]) Mon Conseil en Évolution Professionelle - https://mon-cep.org/ EOPPEP (2022[100]) Career guidance, employment support and other information services in Greece, www.eoppep.gr/index.php/en/counseling-a-vocational-guidance-en/euroguidance-national-centre-1.

Reaching vulnerable groups

As discussed in Chapter 3, adults with low levels of qualifications and/or cognitive skills have limited opportunities to develop their skills further through education and training (OECD, 2019[88]). Moreover, low-skilled adults often face limited aspirations and low career expectations, making them, in most cases, perceive low-skilled work as a reflection of their natural place and identity. The lack of guidance, information and support can perpetuate this vicious cycle hindering adults’ participation in further education and discarding better job opportunities (Sissons, 2020[101]), which impedes social integration (Brand-Gruwel, Moekotte and Ritzen, 2017[102]). VET programmes can support low-skilled adults in developing labour-market relevant skills while at the same time closing basic skills gaps (see Chapter 3). Tailoring basic skills programmes to low-skilled workers’ work contexts and embedding them into vocational training can make them more relevant, attractive, and ultimately effective for low-skilled workers (OECD, 2020[103]). Contextualising basic skills content can have several benefits in terms of engaging and retaining low-skilled adult learners, improving their attitudes towards learning and self-confidence, and resulting in the skills used and maintained in the workplace.

Providing career guidance, including information on VET options, to low-skilled adults is imperative to transform their view of themselves as learners and expand career expectations and potential job opportunities (CEDEFOP, 2016[71]; Wojecki, 2007[104]). However, adults with lower levels of qualifications are less likely to feel a need to speak with a career guidance counsellor (Figure 4.16) than those with high levels of qualifications. Likewise, they are less likely to search for information on learning opportunities (Figure 4.18): In the EU, 45% of adults with a tertiary education qualification search actively for information on learning possibilities, whereas 23% of adults with less than lower secondary education do so. One reason for this is that adults with low skill levels find it more challenging to recognise their learning needs (Windisch, 2015[105]). Tailored guidance and outreach are needed for this group of adults. For instance, in Poland, the Polish Agency for Enterprise Development (PARP) delivers the programme "Every employee is important – raising the competence of low-skilled workers", which provides information and career guidance to workers with low levels of qualifications (Box 4.14). This programme includes a diagnosis of companies’ training needs and offers motivational workshops and soft skills training, together with information about training on specific job-relevant skills. Evidence suggests that this programme positively impacts training engagement, especially among the lowest-skilled workers (Wolińska et al., 2015[106]).

Figure 4.18. Search for information on learning possibilities (2016)

Box 4.14. ‘Every employee is important’ programme in Poland: Guiding low-skilled adults

The Polish Agency for Enterprise Development (PARP) Poland has developed a comprehensive training and counselling framework to improve the vocational desirability and employability of workers with low levels of qualifications through the provision of VET programmes. The project titled "Every employee is important – raising the competencies of low-skilled workers" (Każdypracownik jest ważny – podnoszeniekompetencjipracowników o niskichkwalifikacjach) involves counselling and educational interventions adjusted to vocational needs of low-skilled workers and their specific competence gaps at work.

The programme has two main components. The first focuses on diagnosing companies’ human resources and training needs, with particular emphasis on low-skilled employees, training for entrepreneurs and management staff, and training for workers in low-skilled jobs. The second component includes motivational activities and career counselling to prepare low-skilled workers to participate in vocational training and develop socio-emotional competencies (soft skills). The main objective of the counselling support is to change the attitude of low-skilled adults towards learning and to inform them about the VET learning opportunities available. Information about the programmes and training opportunities for low-skilled workers in each company is customised to the workers’ skill needs and company skills requirements.

The "Every employee is important" programme positively affects different educational and labour market outcomes for low-skilled adults, especially those with the lowest level of education (e.g. primary education or less). According to (Wolińska et al., 2015[106]), the information and career guidance provided increase adults’ engagement with training in the workplace and outside of it.

Source: Wolinska et al (2015[106]), Each employee is important - Project experience (Każdy pracownik - doświadczenia projektu), Polish Agency for Enterprise Development (PARP), www.parp.gov.pl/files/74/591/15512.pdf.

Another group of adults for whom career guidance could be of particular benefit are migrants. Migrants face several challenges in adapting to the circumstances in their new country. They may find it hard to navigate and enter the labour market and/or education and training system. For many, opportunities to recognise their qualifications, skills and experience, as well as opportunities to develop their language skills and vocational competencies, are crucial components that contribute to adapting to the labour market and society more broadly. As highlighted by OECD (2019[107]) analysis, VET could be an effective tool for integrating migrants, provided that the VET system and programmes are flexible and permeable (see Chapter 3).

Migrants’ lower participation rates in adult education are associated with a lack of guidance and counselling on learning opportunities. Across the EU, about a quarter of the foreign-born use such services, against one-third of the native-born (OECD/European Union, 2018[108]). Educational and career guidance becomes essential in supporting the newly arrived on their journey towards social inclusion, especially when such services are seen as part of a connected set of integrated systems. These include skills assessment, accreditation of prior learning, goal clarification, enhancement of employability and advocacy to combat prejudice and discriminatory practices (Sultana, 2022[109]). For example, migrants and refugees in Germany have access to tools for assessing skills and recognising and validating their previous qualifications. It includes a computer-based skill assessment tool for evaluating informal learning or validating credentials when official documents, including assessment tests, are not available (Box 4.15). In the context of labour market integration, career guidance can facilitate access to vocational education and training – including apprenticeships – subsidised job placement and strategies to make the engagement of the newly-arrived attractive to employers. Advice on language learning and job-related training opportunities should be individualised when possible - and delivered by independent, impartial counsellors.

Box 4.15. MYSKILLS in Germany: Supporting refugees to validate their competencies and skills

In 2012, the Federal Government passed the Federal Law on the Recognition of Foreign Qualifications (BQFG), covering both regulated and nonregulated professions. As part of the law, other means can be used to assess the credentials of refugees who lack documents, including assessment tests or expert interviews (Loo, 2016[110]).

The skill recognition system of the German Public Employment Service (Bundesagentur für Arbeit, BA) includes a computer-based skills identification test, "MYSKILLS", – developed with the Bertelsmann Stiftung. The assessment takes around four hours and is done under the supervision of an expert at the public employment service. Testing is currently available in twelve languages and is rolled out to a total of 30 professions. The tool is mainly oriented to migrants or refugees with vast experience in a trade but with no formal qualification validated in Germany. These tests have been designed and developed in cooperation with employers’ associations, and this cooperation has ensured compatibility between the validated skills and qualifications and job requirements.

Before sitting the test, individuals can take a self-assessment online of how much experience they already have in a profession and get an impression of which additional skills are required (meine-berufserfahrung.de). Based on this self-assessment, the individual and the counsellor at the employment agency or job centre can decide which MYSKILLS profession test to take. The self-assessment uses 20-40 captioned images for each profession, which illustrate selected, typical action situations and are each presented with the question: “How often have you done this?”.

Source: Beterlsman Stiftung (2022[111]), Overview of profession for estimating vocational skills (Übersicht der berufe), https://meine-berufserfahrung.de/index.php?&lang=en.

Providing tailored information and guidance

People are generally more sensitive to information when it is customised to their context and needs. For adults, in particular, tailored guidance can be desirable for several reasons. First, they have very diverse backgrounds (e.g. in terms of skills and work experience), which calls for an adult-specific profiling approach. Second, adults often face one or more obstacles preventing them from engaging with learning opportunities (see Chapter 3), and these need to be understood in order to provide tailored advice. Evidence suggests that personalised career guidance is positively associated with enrolment in training as long as it includes current labour market information and, at the same time, considers individuals’ context (OECD, 2021[44]). Evidence from six OECD countries suggests that adults who received a personalised career development roadmap are 25% more likely to report improved employment prospects (OECD, 2021[44]).

A critical component of tailored career guidance is the assessment of skills, which can be particularly relevant for adults. Skills profiling tools provide a more objective measure of a person’s abilities which is crucial to support flexible pathways and redeployment of adults from declining to growing jobs and sectors. Such profiling tools are still uncommon across OECD countries, while interviews are more commonly used (Figure 4.19). Only 31% of adults have participated in a test, while 64% of them have been asked about their skills and experience, and 21% about their qualifications and certificates.

Related to this, the recognition of prior learning (RPL) plays an essential role in career guidance, especially in formal education programmes – like VET programmes. As Chapter 3 describes, RPL can lead to formal certification of skills acquired outside formal training. The process involves demonstrating achievement of competencies, often by preparing a portfolio of relevant work or demonstrating one’s ability to carry out tasks in practice. RPL can shorten retraining pathways by giving adults credit for skills they already have, thus accelerating their transition to new jobs or sectors. Career guidance advisors can help adults to navigate RPL processes.

Figure 4.19. Methods for assessing skills

Reinforcing the quality of guidance by investing in the skills and knowledge of career advisers

In many cases, career guidance services for adults are not effectively meeting their goal of positively influencing career and education-related decisions (OECD, 2021[44]). There are several reasons for that, many of which can be traced back to quality challenges. As for career guidance for youth, quality assurance in career guidance is vital – maybe even more so in the space of adult career guidance which is often scattered among a wide variety of providers. Countries have adopted various strategies to make providers’ quality more transparent. As described above, the Greek EOPPEP has a register of private guidance providers, and registered providers can receive preferential support from the Ministry of Labour. In France, the private providers of the Conseil en Evolution Professionnelle (CEP) (Box 4.13) were selected by France Compétences following a call for tender based on criteria related to their understanding of the CEP; proposed methods, partnerships, awareness-raising and accessibility measures; quality of the staff; and piloting measures.

One key aspect of quality is the ability of the counsellors to effectively guide and support users. Nonetheless, those providing career counselling are not always adequately trained for these positions, lacking the knowledge and skills to provide effective guidance (OECD, 2021[44]). In other cases, the information needed by advisors to effectively guide the career decision-making process is not available or well systematised. As career guidance for adults makes intensive use of recent information on labour market trends and outcomes and the wide offer of education and training opportunities, the opacity of information can significantly impact the quality of the career guidance provided.

In most countries, career guidance advisor is not a regulated profession (i.e. no certificate, licence, or registration must be attained to use the occupation title). Nevertheless, many define minimum training and qualification requirements or participation in refresher programmes to operate as counsellors. A growing number of countries offer specialised training and continuing professional development in career guidance to ensure high-quality services. This allows advisors to keep their knowledge about the labour market and education and training landscape up to date. Career advisors must also develop digital skills amid rapid technological developments that have revolutionised career products and services. In Estonia, for example, the Employment Service of Slovenia offers an annual catalogue of internal professional courses and training (in-person or e-learning). A budget is available to refer counsellors to external professional courses, training, conferences, study visits, and seminars. In Japan, refresher training for career consultants in the public employment service is mandatory and ongoing self-development is expected. Under Japan’s new national qualification for career counselling, counsellors must renew their certification once every five years with a minimum of 38 hours of training (Box 4.16) (OECD, 2021[112]).

Box 4.16. High-quality career counselling in Japan: Training career counsellors

To promote high-quality career counselling, the Japanese Government introduced a national qualification in career counselling in 2016. Individuals who obtain this qualification need to renew it every five years. The most common way to obtain this qualification is to pass the exam after taking a 150-hour training course that covers topics such as the importance of career consulting, counselling techniques, general job and labour market knowledge, and collaboration with other career counselling networks. By mid-2019, around 44 000 individuals were registered as qualified career counsellors, and the goal is to increase this to 100 000 by 2024.

For their certification to be renewed, guidance counsellors need to participate in at least 30 hours of training to develop skills in counselling techniques, instructional methods for preparing resumes, techniques for helping people understand their job, techniques for helping people develop themselves, and techniques for helping people adjust to their new job. Additionally, they need to participate in at least eight hours of training to improve their knowledge in one or more of the following areas: vocational development, human resource management, labour markets, labour-related laws and regulations, social security system, education system, and mental health. The Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare determines eligible training programmes.

Source: OECD (2021[112]), Creating Responsive Adult Learning Opportunities in Japan, https://doi.org/10.1787/cfe1ccd2-en.

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Notes

← 1. This section draws heavily on Stronati (2023[2]).

← 2. The amount of general education included in training packages attracted some criticism in the past, as it was judged insufficient (Knight and Karmel, 2011[113]). In March 2013 the Foundation Skills Training Package (FSK TP) was released, supporting the integrated delivery of foundation skills and vocational skills and knowledge.

← 3. Among countries reporting career expectations in 2000 and 2018 PISA, on average 53% of girls and 47% of boys expected a career in one of the ten most cited occupations in 2018.

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