1. Measuring and evaluating the creative economy in Colombia

Abstract

This chapter presents creative economy trends in Colombia and discusses Colombia’s approach to measuring the sector. Colombia’s new Orange Economy Satellite Account was designed to reflect the broader policy context adopted in Colombia and so, in turn, adopts a broader notion of cultural and creative sectors than that used in international comparisons. The chapter reveals potential to further develop data collection around the creative economy and to target policy towards areas of weakness highlighted by the data.

In Brief

Colombia’s creative economy is strong and there are indications it has bounced back quickly following the pandemic

The Orange Economy policy is evidence driven, with progressive refinement of measurement approaches at national and local levels. To provide the evidence base on the Orange Economy, Colombia has expanded on its existing cultural satellite account (first created in 2002), including through updates in 2019 to include a broader range of sectors and to incorporate data on employment. This methodological extension has been fundamental in broadening the information available on the Orange Economy to aid in implementing and monitoring the policy. Alongside this, Colombia has been working with local actors to create local Satellite Accounts and to produce regional level mapping studies. These studies have proved an important step in assessing the landscape for the Orange Economy policy at a local level.
Data from the national satellite account shows value added and employment in the Orange Economy was growing before the COVID-19 pandemic (2014-2019), where GVA of the Orange Economy had increased by 3% and employment in the Orange Economy had increased by 16%. However, between 2019-2020 GVA declined by 21% and employment declined by 11%. Early indications show that the sector is bouncing back quickly, with employment increasing 7.7% in the first three quarters of 2021 compared to the same period in the previous year. Household spending and international export estimates also suggest the effects of the pandemic on GVA may have been short lived.
Colombia introduced ReactivARTE, a set of measures to re-launch the creative economy and support cultural and creative workers through the pandemic (see chapter 4) and used support mechanisms to address issues of informality. High informality is an ongoing structural challenge for the creative economy in Colombia. In response to the pandemic, Colombia also launched SoyCultura, which incentivises informal cultural workers to sign up to a national registry to receive grants and support. The Ministry of Culture estimates around 34.6% of workers in the creative economy to be informal in 2020, dropping from an estimated 39,6% in 2019.
Comparing Colombia’s cultural and creative sectors (CCS) to other OECD countries using a narrower definition than the full Orange Economy, shows Colombia has a higher proportion of CCS enterprises than many advanced economies, such as, France, Italy and the United Kingdom. Moreover, a larger proportion of CCS businesses in Colombia have at least 10 employees (10%), compared with the OECD average (4%). However, in 2018 the share of total business sector GVA attributed to CCS (0.7%) was below the OECD average (2.2%), reflecting relatively lower shares of enterprises in high GVA generating subsectors.
System of National Accounts (SNA) data shows household spending on culture and recreation in Colombia is one of the lowest in the OECD. In 2019, 6.1% of household spending in Colombia was made on recreation and culture, compared to an OECD average of 8.5%. Moreover, national survey data suggests that spending on recreation and culture is highly uneven across geographies, with those living in municipal capital areas spending, on average, over two times more on recreation and culture than those in dispersed rural and populated areas.
Cultural participation is also very uneven across regions in Colombia, with participation rates far higher in Bogotá than in other places. For example, in 2020, 46% of those in Bogotá had attended a cinema in the past 12 months, compared to only 22% in Amazonía / Orinoquia. Similarly, 19% in Bogotá had visited a museum, but only 2% in Caribe.

Policy considerations to enhance Colombia’s data collection efforts and address issues highlighted in this analysis include:

Enhancing data collection and reporting by, for example, producing more regular and disaggregated reporting of business counts in the Orange Economy and expanding data on Orange Economy employment, including second jobs and those working in cultural and creative occupations outside of Orange Economy industry sectors.
Promoting growth in all parts of the Orange Economy, for example by commissioning further research into the different needs and dynamics of each sector and by targeting business support to specific groups, such as the self-employed.
Focusing efforts towards encouraging cultural participation, especially in rural and smaller urban areas, for example by considering the use of cultural voucher schemes. Other potential mechanisms to support cultural participation are discusses in chapters 2 and 3.

1.1. Colombia’s Orange Economy policy has helped promote growth in GVA and employment of the creative economy

1.1.1. Colombia’s Orange Economy policy puts culture and creativity at the centre of a transformative development plan

As a developing country, Colombia has a very different profile to the majority of OECD countries (Table 1.1). At 51 million people, Colombia has the 10th highest population of OECD countries (OECD, 2022[1]). A large share of the population live in rural areas, with around 17% of the population living in areas remote from cities, compared to an OECD average of 9% (OECD, 2022[2]). In 2021, Colombia had the lowest GDP per capita of OECD countries at USD 17 299, compared to an OECD average of USD 49 370 (OECD, 2022[3]) and in 2017 household disposable income in Colombia was around 40% lower than OECD average (OECD, 2022[4]). Employment rates in the country are high, however the labour market is characterised by high levels of informality.

Table 1.1. Colombia overview statistics
2019 or latest available year
Indicator	Colombia	OECD average
Population density per km²	45.4	38.4
Population under 15 (%)	22.6	17.9
Population over 65 (%)	8.8	17.1
Latest 5-year average population growth (%)	1.4	0.6
GDP per capita (thousands USD PPP)	15.6	47.6
Exports of goods and services (% of GDP)	15.9	53.6
Imports of goods and services (% of GDP)	21.7	50.4
Employment rate (aged 15 and over, %)	60.8	57.5
Men	73.4	65.6
Women	48.9	49.9
Unemployment rate, Labour Force Survey (aged 15 and over, %)	10.5	5.4
Tertiary educational attainment (aged 25-64, %)	23.8	37.9
Gross domestic expenditure on R&D (% of GDP, 2018)	0.2	2.6
Proportion of people living below 50 percent of median income (%)	22.3	11.5
Median disposable household income (thousand USD PPP, OECD: 2017)	14.6	24.2
Note: The year is indicated in parenthesis if it deviates from the year in the main title of this table. Where the OECD aggregate is not provided in the source database, a simple OECD average of latest available data is calculated where data exist for at least 80% of member countries.
Source: (OECD, 2022[4])

Colombia have put culture and creativity at the heart of development planning through the Orange Economy policies. The concept of the Orange Economy represents a new development model promoted by the administration of Iván Duque (2018-2022), that places culture and creativity as a central pillar of the development agenda. The policy considers the creative economy not from a welfare perspective (e.g. a sector requiring government intervention to maintain), but rather recognises the creative economy as a tool for income and wealth generation, encompassing the improvement of opportunities through capacity building, and the guarantee of cultural rights.

Since proposing the Orange Economy Law in 2017, the aim has been to stimulate the creative sector through seven management strategies. These management strategies are collectively known as the seven “I”s, encompassing: Information, Institutions, Infrastructure, Industry, Integration, Inclusion and Inspiration (see chapter 2 for more detail on the seven “I”s and the broader Orange Economy policy).

1.1.2. Expanding Colombia’s cultural satellite account to include all Orange Economy sectors has been a key part of the broader strategy

A key part of Colombia’s Orange Economy strategy was the expansion of its cultural satellite account. Colombia had produced cultural satellite account statistics since 2002 but in 2019 the methodology of the satellite was updated and the coverage expanded to include a broader range of sectors and to incorporate data on employment in cultural occupations (see Box 1.1 for description of what is included in Colombia’s Orange Economy). The expansion of the Culture Satellite Account to the current Culture and Orange Economy Satellite Account enabled more granular mapping of the value generated by the whole Orange Economy, including the partial GVA contribution of some industry sectors.

This investment in information gathering was fundamental to being able to monitor and evaluate the role of culture in Colombia and the impact of the Orange Economy policy. Having detailed and disaggregated information for the different activities that make up the Orange Economy provides all actors in the ecosystem with data to guide their investments, help minimise risks and assess the development of the sector. The new methodologies adopted by Colombia in this regard, including at the sub-national level (see section 1.1.4) have been fundamental in capturing the progress and characteristics of the Orange Economy and has been hugely successful in improving Colombia’s understanding of the sector.

Colombia’s Orange Economy Information System (SIENA) has helped coordinate the Culture and Orange Economy Satellite Account and other statistical data. Data on the Orange Economy are available on a centralised platform on the National Administrative Statistics Department (DANE) website, gathering a total of 175 indicators on employment, firm, GVA, and other statistical items. Led by DANE, the SIENA has enabled the national government to gather information from an array of sources to create a more granular understanding of the sector. SIENA indicators differ from those of satellite account as they are based on both monetary and non-monetary data collected from cultural entities in Colombia, while those of the satellite account assembles macroeconomic information. Colombia’s National Training Service (SENA) has also made a push to increase data available on the Orange Economy, working with DANE to unify professional classification codes, generating over 3 000 codes. These services also fulfil an important role in disseminating information on the Orange Economy to those working on the sector, potential investors and the wider public.

Box 1.1. Assessing Colombia’s Orange Economy: what’s included

National definitions of cultural and creative sectors vary widely amongst countries, according to policy priorities, local practices and data availability. Strongly influenced by the mapping studies conducted in the United Kingdom in the late 1990s and early 2000s, e.g. (DCMS, 1998[5]), the categorisation of cultural and creative sectors (CCS) in Europe generally includes a core of cultural and artistic sectors (such as music, dance, museums and heritage sites) as well as some more market driven creative sectors (such as advertising, videogames development and architecture). Influenced more heavily by the work of the IDB and CAB, e.g. (IDB, 2013[6]; CAB, 2009[7]), in Latin America conceptions of CCS tend to take a more ecosystem based approach, encompassing more of the supply chain of cultural and creative goods and services, and recognising the interconnectedness of subsectors.

Colombia’s definition of the creative economy, as detailed in the Orange Economy policy is broader than most OECD national level definitions of CCS. As part of the broader policy which puts culture and creativity at the heart of a wider development model, Colombia has developed a definition of industry sectors to be included within statistical definitions. This definition includes sectors which “relate to the creation, production and commercialisation of goods and services based on intangible content of a cultural and creative nature, which in many cases can be protected by intellectual property rights” (DANE, 2021[8]). Within the definition, Colombia has identified a list of 34 activities which it deems wholly within scope of the Orange Economy and a further 69 activities that partially belong to the Orange Economy, because some of the products they generate are protected by copyright (see Annex 1.A for list of sectors included in the Orange Economy).

The Orange Economy is grouped into three areas: arts and heritage, cultural industries and creative industries. Arts and heritage is composed of visual arts, performing arts, tourism and cultural heritage, cultural education, gastronomy and handicrafts. The cultural industries are composed of publishing, phonography and the audio-visual sector. The creative industries include digital media and software, design, and advertising (see (National Council of the Orange Economy, 2019[9]). These sectors cover the majority of areas typically deemed to be part of CCS, however they also include what UNESCO would define as “related domains” (UNESCO, 2009[10]) such as cultural tourism. This brings sectors such as gastronomy and parts of the hotel trade into the scope of Orange Economy policies. Including parts of non-core CCS sectors in cultural satellite accounts is not uncommon. For example, Canada include the parts of the manufacturing sector related to craft production (Statistics Canada, 2011[11]). These partial inclusions represent the cultural aspects of these industries, such as transport’s role in supporting cultural tourism and the production of traditional foods and drinks.

The definition of Orange Economy sectors used by Colombia reflects how culture and creativity are present in many sectors of the economy. The broader definition used by Colombia captures the contribution of cultural intermediaries in the creative economy as well as a broad set of cultural domains. Moreover, this breadth of sectors reflects the breadth of artistic, cultural, heritage and creative activities operating within the economy, highlighting that there are many economic activities which, although market-oriented, have high symbolic content of great value in their creation and production. Consequently, the broader definition of the Orange Economy captures a fuller extent of the cultural and creative ecosystem.

Source: CAB (2009), Cultural Satellite Account-Methodological manual for its implementation in Latin America; DANE (2021), Culture and Orange Economy Satellite Account - Technical Bulletin, https://www.dane.gov.co/files/investigaciones/pib/sateli_cultura/2014-2020/boletin-CSCEN-2019prv-2020pre.pdf; DCMS (1998), Creative Industries Mapping Documents 1998, Department for Digital, Culture, Media & Sport, London, https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/creative-industries-mapping-documents-1998; IDB (2013), The Orange Economy: An Infinite Opportunity; National Council of the Orange Economy (2019), Comprehensive Policy of the Orange Economy, https://economianaranja.gov.co/media/zpvnxktd/comprehensive-policy-of-the-orange-economy.pdf; Statistics Canada (2011), Classification Guide for the Canadian Framework for Culture Statistics 2011, https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/pub/87-542-x/87-542-x2011002-eng.pdf?st=hwZZ6qOK; UNESCO (2009), 2009 UNESCO Framework for Cultural Statistics.

1.1.3. The Orange Economy was growing before the pandemic and appears to be recovering well

GVA

GVA contribution varies between the different parts of the Orange Economy. GVA of the Orange Economy represented on average 2.9% of the national value added in the period 2018-2020 (DANE, 2021[8]). Around 12% of Orange Economy GVA in 2020 came from micro enterprises, indicating both their importance to the Orange Economy and the success of Colombia’s satellite account in seeking to capture additional data on this group. Around half (50.2%) of Orange Economy GVA comes from the creative industries group, with GVA driven largely by the contribution the digital software sector, which makes up around 70% of the GVA contribution of this group.

The implementation of the Orange Economy policy in 2017 marks a turning point in GVA growth trends for the sector. GVA of the Orange Economy was trending down before the implementation of the policy in 2017. Moreover, there was a large gap between GVA growth rates for the total economy and GVA growth rates for the Orange Economy, with GVA of the Orange Economy even seeing negative growth in 2016 and 2017. However, in 2018 GVA of the Orange Economy increased by 0.8% compared to 2017, and it increased by 1.8% in 2019 compared to 2018. The growth trajectory of the Orange Economy post 2017 resulted in a narrowing of the gap between total economy GVA growth and Orange Economy GVA growth, suggesting that early implementation of the Orange Economy was beginning to boost the economic performance of the sector.

Figure 1.1. Annual GVA growth rate Orange Economy and total economy, 2015-2019

GVA of the Orange Economy had been increasing before COVID-19. Between 2017 and 2019 GVA of the total Orange Economy increased by 3% overall (Figure 1.2). The arts and heritage group saw the biggest increase of 8%, including an increase of 36% in performing arts GVA and an increase of 21% in cultural tourism GVA. The creative industries group saw an increase of 1.4%, with high growth in the digital media and software sector (18% increase) being offset by declines in the advertising (29% decline) and design (7% decline) sectors. The cultural industries group saw a decline in GVA of 1.4% over this period, driven largely by a decline in the publishing subsector, which saw GVA decline by 10% between 2017 and 2019. The difference in in growth patterns between different parts of the Orange Economy reflects both international trends (e.g. the rise in digital media and software sector and a decline in publishing) and the impact of the Orange Economy policy on target areas such as cultural tourism.

However, the pandemic had a dramatic effect on the whole Orange Economy. In real terms, GVA of the Orange Economy declined by 21% between 2019-2020 (Figure 1.2). This compares to a decline in total economy GVA for Colombia of around 7% (OECD, 2022[12]). Though it is interesting to note that the Orange Economy was not the most affected sector, with the construction sector seeing a 27% decline in GVA over this period (OECD, 2022[14]). GVA of the arts and heritage group declined by 30% between 2019-2020, cultural industries declined by 25% and creative industries declined by 12%. In keeping with international trends (OECD, 2020[15]), the largest declines in GVA came from the performing arts subsector (71% decline) and cultural tourism (66% decline), which were most heavily impacted by travel restrictions, lockdowns and social distancing measures. However, some subsectors continued to grow despite the pandemic. For example, GVA of the digital media and software subsector grew by 8% between 2019 and 2020, and the cultural education subsector grew by 9%.

Figure 1.2. Orange economy GVA growth rate, 2017-2019 and 2019-2020

While GVA figures are not yet available for 2021, there are indications that the sector is recovering well. For example, analysis by the consultancy firm Raddar, shows that household spending on Orange Economy goods and services in January-May 2022 exceed spending in the same period in 2019. Moreover, data shows that Orange Economy exports grew 85.7% in value in January-September 2021, compared to the same period in the previous year (DANE, 2021[16]). Coupled with strong employment data for the first part of 2021 (see next section), this suggests that GVA of the Orange Economy is likely to have recovered quickly from the shock of 2020.

Employment

Over half of those working in the Orange Economy are self-employed. In 2020, around 2.6% of the workforce in Colombia was working in the Orange Economy (including both salaried and self-employed workers). Just under half (48%) of this employment was in the arts and heritage group, with 40% coming from creative industries and the remaining 12% from the cultural industries (Figure 1.3). As a whole, over half (53%) of workers in the orange economy were self-employed in 2020, with the highest levels of self-employment found in the arts and heritage group at 63%. While self-employment is often higher in cultural and creative sectors than in the rest of the economy (OECD, 2020[15]), in the Colombia the rate of self-employment it not substantially higher in the Orange Economy compared to employment in general, where 51% of those in employment are self-employed (OECD, 2022[17]).

Before the pandemic, self-employment in the Orange Economy had been growing in almost all subsectors. Total employment in the Orange Economy (including both salaried and self-employed) increased by 16% between 2014-2019. The number of people working in self-employment in the Orange Economy however increased by 27%. Figure 1.4 shows employment growth for each subsector of the Orange Economy for the period before the pandemic (2014-2019). During this period, self-employment was growing in almost every subsector, with the exception of the visual and performing arts subsector and the digital media subsector. In these two subsectors, declines in self-employment match almost exactly increases in salaried employment, suggesting that many workers may have shifted into more standardised forms of employment in these areas. For the cultural education and the news services subsectors, the opposite occurred, with a general shift away from salaried work towards more self-employment. In regards to news services, perhaps reflecting wider shifts in the media landscape, with greater reliance on on-line content and freelance journalism.

The pandemic created significant loss in employment in the Orange Economy in almost all subsectors, but this loss was not necessarily felt more heavily for the self-employed. Overall employment in the Orange Economy (including both salaried and self-employed) declined by 11% between 2019-2020 (DANE, 2021[13]), compared to a decline of 10% in overall employment in Colombia (OECD, 2022[19]). Unsurprisingly, the biggest job losses were in the visual and performing arts subsector, which saw an overall decline of 26% (Figure 1.5). However, here salaried employment saw a more marked impact than self-employment, with salaried employment in visual and performing arts declining by 39%, compared to a decline of 24% in self-employed workers. Cultural tourism, design and advertising also saw a larger proportional loss of salaried employment than self-employment. Consistent with international trends (OECD, 2022[20]), employment in the digital media subsector increased in 2020, but whilst self-employment in the sector had been trending downwards before the pandemic, it was this form of work which saw the largest increase between 2019-2020 (27% compared to 8% increase in salaried employment).

Figure 1.4. Orange economy employment growth by employment type, 2014-2019

Figure 1.5. Orange economy employment growth by employment type, 2019-2020

Employment in the Orange Economy bounced back quickly from the pandemic. In the first quarter of 2021, employment in the Orange Economy was down 9.9% compared to the first quarter of 2020 (Figure 1.6). However, in the second quarter of 2021 employment grew by 25% compared to the same period in the previous year and grew 12% in the third quarter compared to the same period in the previous year. Overall growth rates for the period suggest that employment is set to quickly return to pre-pandemic levels. While employment dropped by 11.9% between 2019 and 2020 for the January - September period, in the January - September 2021 period, employment increased by 7.7% compared to the same period of the previous year. While in many OECD countries the dramatic decline in the creative labour pool due to the pandemic has prompted fears that cultural and creative sectors may be slow to recover, this evidence from Colombia implies that the wide range of support measures targeted toward Orange Economy workers throughout the pandemic (see chapter 4) has been successful in maintaining the talent pool.

Figure 1.6. Quarterly Orange Economy employment growth, 2019-2020 and 2020-2021

High informality is an ongoing structural challenge for the creative economy. The Ministry of Culture estimates around 34.6% of workers in the creative economy to be informal in 2020, dropping from an estimated 39.6% in 2019.1 Informality is a structural challenge across labour markets in Latin America, weighing on the social protection of cultural workers. The OECD has noted informality affects more than 50% of workers in Latin America (OECD et al., 2021[21]). In Colombia, household level data suggests 74.4% of those self-employed are informal workers across all sectors, while just under 20% of people in salaried employment are informal (Figure 1.7). A lower share of people in salaried employment are informal in Colombia compared to other OECD countries in Latin America, while a higher share of self-employed workers are informal. High structural rates of informality in the creative economy are a key consideration in the planning of Colombia’s Orange Economy policy, as well as being addressed through other initiatives, such as those involving the social and solidarity economy (see Box 1.2).

Figure 1.7. Share of informality by status in employment, last available year

Box 1.2. The social and solidarity economy as a pathway to formal employment in Colombia

The social and solidarity economy (SSE) has been identified as an innovative and viable vehicle to tackle informality. The SSE has the capacity to reach disadvantaged groups and individuals and facilitate access to training, formal work, property, information, and equitable distribution of profit to its members. The SSE currently represents around 4% of Colombia’s GDP, and nearly 7 million Colombians are affiliated to SSE organisations such as cooperatives, mutual associations, and employee funds (Superintendence of the Solidarity Economy, 2017[22]).

The capacity of the SSE to tackle pressing challenges is recognised in many major policies. The Pact for Entrepreneurship, Formalisation and Productivity of the National Development Plan 2018-2022 explicitly aims at promoting entrepreneurship and reducing informality. Article 164 of the Pact refers to strengthening SSE organisations through a comprehensive public policy for their promotion, protection and development (National Department of Planning, 2019[23]; Ministry of Justice, 2019[24]). Since 1988, more than fifteen policies and laws aiming to promote, strengthen or regulate the SSE have been implemented in the country, including the Law 454 of 1998 and the 2021 Public policy for the development of the solidarity economy. The former determines the conceptual framework that regulates the social and solidarity economy, while the latter aims to improve the development of the SSE through institutional strengthening, fostering solidarity education and improving the supervision model of social economy organisations.

Multiple programmes and initiatives based on the SSE contribute to formalisation of work in Colombia. The two following examples illustrate the contribution of social economy to tackling informality:

The Social Laboratory for Productive Inclusion. This initiative, led by the Vice-Presidency implements pilot projects for income generation for informal workers and supports street vendors in 11 cities. Through this initiative, the Colombian Government expects to support the creation of 55 social and solidarity economy organisations by August 2022. By May 2022, 15 cooperatives have been created and another 22 cooperatives are in an awareness-raising and training process (OECD, 2022[25]).
The Integral Intervention Programme led by the Special Administrative Unit of Solidarity Organisations (UAEOS). It seeks to promote solidarity practices, developing social and solidarity economy organisations in the most vulnerable communities, and improving work formalisation. The programme aims to foster new SSE organisations, decent work, fair remuneration, and empowered communities. Based on UAEOS’ estimates, between 2018 and 2019, the Unit supported more than 700 solidarity organisations, benefitting more than 7 000 households (UAEOS, 2020[26])

Note: As part of the OECD/Colombia project ‘Social protection and tackling informality: building on the social and solidarity economy in Colombia’, the OECD organised three workshops in 2021 and 2022. The (OECD 2022) Workshop Highlights provide a snapshot of the discussions and policy orientations that have emerged from the exchanges in the three workshops. The box is also based on information provided in the workshops and captured in the highlights.

Source: ILO (2021), Transition from the informal to the formal economy - Theory of Change, https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/---protrav/---travail/documents/briefingnote/wcms_768807.pdf.; Ministry of Justice (2019), Law 1955 of 2019, https://www.suin-juriscol.gov.co/view; National Department of Planning (2019), Plan Nacional de Desarrollo 2018-2022 “Pacto por Colombia, pacto por la equidad”, https://colaboracion.dnp.gov.co/CDT/Prensa/PND-Resumen-2018-2022.pdf.; OECD (2022), OECD Economic Surveys: Colombia 2022, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/04bf9377-en.; OECD (2022), Workshop highlights: Social Protection and Tackling Informality: Building on the social and solidarity economy in Colombia, https://www.oecd.org/colombia/Social-Protection-and-Tackling-Informality-Colombia-workshop-highlights.pdf.; OECD (forthcoming), From Informal to Fomal jobs, the contribution of cooperatives in Colombia; Superintendence of the Solidarity Economy (2017), Superintendente de la Economía Solidaria habló sobre el presente y futuro del sector solidario; UAEOS (2020), Implementando el Programa Integral de Intervención la UAEOS construye territorios solidarios, https://www.uaeos.gov.co/Prensa/Noticias-la-UAEOS-est%C3%A1-construyendo-territorios-solidarios

Formal employment in the Orange Economy was less heavily impacted by the pandemic and figures show that formal employment rates in 2022 surpassed those in 2019. Those in formal employment (i.e. those reporting social security payments) saw a far less severe decline in employment over the pandemic period (Figure 1.8). The number of formal Orange Economy workers registered in Colombia’s Register of Labor Relations (RELAB) only declined an average of 3.5% between 2019 and 2020. Moreover, the number of formal Orange Economy workers increased by 4.8% between 2020 and 2021, and the first quarter of 2022 saw formal employment growth of 2.8% compared with the 2021 average. Colombia has sought to incentivise identification of cultural workers through programmes such as SoyCultura (Box 1.3). These formalisation efforts appear to be making good progress, with the number of Orange Economy workers reporting social security payments in 2022 exceeding the number in 2019.

Figure 1.8. Yearly average formal employment in the Orange Economy, 2019-2022

Box 1.3. SoyCultura - a national registry for creative economy workers

Through SoyCultura, Colombia identifies cultural workers, contributing to formalisation efforts

In response to the crisis generated by COVID-19 for cultural workers, Colombia launched SoyCultura, a national registry for cultural workers. SoyCultura responded to a need to gather information on the number and profile of Colombia’s cultural workers at a time when COVID-19 measures placed unprecedented hardship on artists and creative producers.

Soy Cultura incentivises cultural workers to register as the process has become a requirement to participate in national and local government applications for competitive culture grants. The Ministry of Culture created a web portal which accompanies cultural workers through a step by step process to register. Those registered receive specific information on creative economy opportunities.

Taking stock of the high level of informality in Colombia, this programme enabled the government to gather territorial, sectoral and other information on artists and producers and to introduce tailored formalisation efforts. In doing so, the programme was able to gather crucial information on informal workers to support the formulation of public policies. Beyond its role to help formalise workers, SoyCultura is also a broader tool to connect cultural agents in a network and help gather data for a range of cultural policies. Information is linked directly to subnational governments.

Source: Ministry of Culture (n.d.[28]) ¿Qué es Soy Cultura?, https://soycultura.mincultura.gov.co/#/pagina/que-es-soy-cultura; Minsitry of Culture (n.d.[29]), Regístrate en Soy Cultura y sé el primero en enterarte de las convocatorias de MinCultura, https://www.mincultura.gov.co/prensa/noticias/Paginas/Convocatorias-de-MinCultura-.aspx.

Alongside issues of informality, employment in the creative economy is, in general, often underestimated in official statistics looking at main job. Employment counts taken from labour force surveys typically only consider a person’s main activity, and exclude data on second jobs. In the creative economy, many workers have a main job in other sectors, whilst working part time in cultural or creative work (OECD, 2022[20]). This means that data often underestimates the true scale of employment in these sectors. Collecting data on second jobs in the Orange Economy could greatly strengthen Colombia’s approach.

Employment in the creative ecosystem includes not only those working in the sector, but also those working in creative jobs outside the sector. The trident approach to measuring cultural and creative employment includes all those working in cultural and creative industry sectors and those working in cultural and creative occupations in other sectors of the economy (Higgs and Cunningham, 2008[30]). The current Orange Economy Satellite account could be strengthened by including those working in jobs related to culture and creativity, in non-Orange Economy sectors (for example, a designer working for a car manufacturer). For example, evidence shows that around 40% of cultural and creative employment can be found outside of cultural and creative sectors across the OECD (Figure 1.9). Gathering data on Orange Economy workers throughout the economy could greatly strengthen understanding of how the Orange Economy policy may be supporting employment across the economy.

Figure 1.9. Cultural and creative employment as a share of total employment within and outside cultural and creative sectors, 2020

1.1.4. Data at the local level is also being gathered, supplying local governments with information on the composition of local sectors

While the satellite account is mainly focused at the national level, work is underway to expand the production of territorial observatories for the Orange Economy. A Territorial Satellite Account for Bogotá was implemented in 2017, which provides similar information to the national satellite account, but at the local level. Since 2019, Bogotá has adapted the methodology used to be in keeping with the national Orange Economy satellite account and were active participants in developing the new methodology at national level. Work is also underway to expand data collection for the creative economy at a territorial level. In addition to the one located in the capital, Orange Economy “observatories” have been set up in Cali and Medellín, with the aim to develop a network of observatories across the country. These observatories aim to promote research, innovation and creativity through collaborations between state institutions, civil society, private companies and academia. Local observatories also administer territorial data. These territorial accounts are an important step in offering regular statistical information at the local level, which can be used to help evaluate and guide policy making. Observatories are growing as a networking and coordination space for the sector.

In addition, mapping studies have been conducted to gather information at the local level. As part of its strategy, the government launched several “express” cultural and creative industries mapping exercises in Colombian municipalities. The National Consulting Centre conducted the mappings locally, with support from the country’s territorial development bank (Findeter). The National Consulting Centre used methods such as geolocation data, surveys and focus groups in each municipality to gather information on local actors, challenges, bottlenecks and other aspects of the local creative ecosystem (see Box 1.4).

Box 1.4. Regional mapping of Colombia’s creative ecosystems

Colombia has introduced local creative economy mapping studies to better understand the specific needs of different regions in the country. During 2019 and 2020, 16 mappings of cultural and creative industries were carried out for 16 cities in the country (Bucaramanga, Barranquilla, Manizales, Pereira, Cali, Pasto, Santa Marta, Cartagena, Medellín and Valledupar, Villavicencio, Ibagué, Popayán, Armenia, Cúcuta and Nevada) (Ministry of Culture, n.d.[33]). Each of these mapping studies included both quantitative and qualitative analysis of the local creative ecosystem, identifying strengths, weaknesses, challenges and opportunities for the sector.

These mapping studies have been instrumental in developing action plans at the local level to support the development of local creative ecosystems. Each of the mapping studies resulted in the identification of specific strategic goals, unique to each area. This enabled local level planning to respond to the specificities of each community in developing the local creative ecosystem. Moreover, these strategic objects were also used to guide local implementation of national level policies, such as the regional observatories and the Orange Economy development zones – ADNs (for more information on ADNs see chapter 3).

This bottom up approach enabled policy planning that was responsive to the differing needs of each community. The three strategic objectives identified by each city varied according to local strengths and weaknesses. For example:

In Barranquilla, one objective was to develop appropriate mechanisms to disseminate information and provide knowledge to cultural and creative agents that are part of the sector, regarding strengthening instruments, business tools, access to markets, best practices, and other aspects that support the growth and profitability of their ventures and initiatives.
In Bucaramanga, one objective was to contribute to improving the sustainability and profitability of the creative and cultural activities of local agents by supporting the development of managerial skills and competences that enhance the growth of their activities.
In Cartagena, one objective was to promote linking the city's cultural and creative offer to its tourist dynamics, so that the different events that use the city as a stage are a platform for local agents to make local cultural goods and services known.
In Cúcuta, one objective was to lead initiatives to address the needs regarding infrastructure, financing and internationalisation of cultural and creative activities in order to strengthen the sector in Cúcuta.
In Ibagué, one objective was to improve access to spaces and infrastructure for the sector's performances, encouraging participation, generating articulation and promoting the dissemination of the different cultural and creative activities in the city.
In Neiva, one objective was to identify and refine financing and investment instruments for cultural and creative enterprises in the city, particularly those in the growth stage.
In Santa Marta, one objective was to strengthen vocational training and complementary education options, including those related to business and market consultancy, through programmes that improve the possibilities of enhancing the work carried out by cultural and creative agents.

Source: Ministry of Culture (n.d.[33]), Reports from the regions, https://economianaranja.gov.co/reportes/; CNC (2020[34]), Implementation Document and Strategic Plan: City Commitment and Creative Agenda of Barranquilla, https://economianaranja.gov.co/media/52uoimxa/documento-mapeo-barranquilla.pdf; CNC (2019[35]), Implementation Documents and Strategic Plan: Apuesta Ciudad y Agenda Creativa de Bucaramanga (Bucaramanga’s City and Creative Agenda), https://economianaranja.gov.co/media/d2bl0zcy/documento-mapeo-bucaramanga.pdf.; CNC (2019[36]), Integrated Implementation Document of the Express Mapping of Cultural and Creative Industries of the Tourist and Cultural District of Cartagena de Indias, https://economianaranja.gov.co/media/d1gjikyh/documento-mapeo-cartagena.pdf.; CNC (2020[37]), Implementation document, integrated analysis and strategic proposal: Express Mapping of Cultural and Creative Industries in Cúcuta, Norte de Santander, https://economianaranja.gov.co/media/fjedq2qs/documento-mapeo-c%C3%BAcuta.pdf.; CNC (2020[38]), Implementation document, integrated analysis and strategic proposal: Express Mapping of Cultural and Creative Industries in Ibagué, Tolima., https://economianaranja.gov.co/media/wpchwp4o/documento-mapeo-ibagu%C3%A9.pdf.; CNC (2020[39]), Implementation document, integrated analysis and strategic proposal: Express Mapping of Cultural and Creative Industries in Neiva, Huila, https://economianaranja.gov.co/media/tbpe5zia/documento-mapeo-neiva.pdf.; CNC (2019[40]), Integrated Implementation Document of the Cultural and Creative Industries Express Mapping in Santa Marta, https://economianaranja.gov.co/media/jwmk3ypd/documento-mapeo-santa-marta.pdf.

A main strength of these express mapping studies was their integration of data sources. Official data on Orange Economy businesses and workers from the Single Business Registry (RUES) and the Integrated Contribution Settlement Form (PILA) was complemented by local identification strategies. Here key networks were identified at the local level and information on local actors sourced through these networks. This approach allowed municipalities to additionally capture information on those actors who were working informally. Moreover, the studies incorporated qualitative data from interviews, workshops and focus groups as well as detailed analysis on local policies and programs.

1.2. Cultural and creative sectors in Colombia: international comparisons

1.2.1. The definition of cultural and creative sectors (CCS) used for international comparisons is much narrower than the full Orange Economy

This section of the report uses the Eurostat definition of cultural and creative sectors (Eurostat, 2018[31]), which was designed to capture as much cultural and creative activity as possible whilst allowing for international comparison (see Box 1.5). This Eurostat definition is much narrower than the definition of the creative economy used within the Orange Economy policy (see Box 1.1). The second part of this chapter relates exclusively to this narrower definition. To illustrate how much narrower the Eurostat CCS definition is compared to the Orange Economy sectors, Figure 1.10 compares GVA of Colombia’s CCS and GVA Colombia’s Orange Economy in 2020. While GVA of the Orange Economy amounted to around COP 22 988 billion, Colombia’s CCS GVA amounted to around COP 3 803 billion. As such, readers are advised that statistics relating to CCS presented here for international comparisons will differ from statistics relating to the Orange Economy, as defined by the Colombian government.

Figure 1.10. GVA of Colombia’s CCS and Orange Economy, 2020

Box 1.5. Comparing Colombia’s cultural and creative sectors: what’s included

Issues with international comparisons

Compiling data on the creative economy at an international level is challenging, as it requires information about sectors at a very fine level of detail. Collecting and compiling data at this level of detail is costly and time consuming and many countries lack available resources to do so. This is particularly the case in developing countries, where a lack of detailed business statistics have been identified as a major barrier to the development of internationally comparative statistics on the creative economy (IDB, Oxford Economics, British Council, OAS, 2014[41]).

Colombia’s enhanced data collection efforts around the Orange Economy mean that some data are available at the levels of disaggregation needed to make international comparisons. Despite some limitations, comparisons can be made between the creative economy in Colombia and in other OECD countries for some statistics and for some subsectors. This section of the report uses the Eurostat definition of cultural and creative sectors (Eurostat, 2018[31]), which was designed to capture as much cultural and creative activity as possible whilst allowing for international comparison.

However, there are also contextual considerations to take into account when making international comparisons. For example, Colombia has a high share of people living in peripheral and rural areas compared to OECD average, raising challenges in regards to access to cultural amenities, which tend to concentrate in cities and urban areas. Moreover, Colombia has lower than average household disposable income, which means people generally have less to spend on cultural goods and services. Additionally, high levels of labour informality raise challenges in regards to measuring the creative economy and therefore being able to fully understand the sector’s needs.

Cultural and creative sectors: what’s included

The following sectors are included in the definition of CCS for international comparisons, however the last two sectors are excluded from GVA comparisons due to data availability for some OECD countries:

Printing and reproduction of recorded media
Manufacturing of jewellery and musical instruments
Retail trade of books, newspapers and music
Publishing
Motion picture, video and television programme production, sound recording and music publishing
Programming and broadcasting
News agency activities
Architectural activities
Specialised design, photography and translation and interpretation
Renting of video tapes and disks
Creative, arts and entertainment activities
Libraries, archives, museums and other cultural activities

It should be noted that in Colombia, data on GVA for the last two sectors is available, and whilst these sectors are not included for international comparison, they are included in some additional GVA analysis.

Figure 1.11 illustrates how much narrower the Eurostat definition of CCS is compared to Colombia’s definition of the Orange Economy.

Figure 1.11. Colombia’s Orange Economy sectors

1.2.2. Cultural and creative sector (CCS) enterprises already made up a large portion of Colombia’s business base in 2018

A high proportion of enterprises in Colombia were in cultural and creative sectors in 2018, one year after the launch of the Orange Economy policy. Comparing Colombia’s CCS to other OECD countries using the Eurostat definition of cultural and creative sectors (see Box 1.5), CCS enterprises made up just under 9% of the total business economy in Colombia in 2018, compared to an OECD average of 7% (Figure 1.12). However, it is important to note, that this share may be slightly over inflated, as data disaggregation issues mean that some of the engineering sector is captured within the Architecture subsector for Colombia. If we exclude the Architecture sector entirely, the remaining CCS subsectors accounted for around 6% of enterprises in the business economy in Colombia (Figure 1.13). Whilst this is slightly below the OECD average of 7%, it is a higher proportion than many other developed countries.

The largest proportion of CCS enterprises were found in the more creative (i.e. less traditionally cultural) subsectors of CCS. Just over a third of CCS enterprises (34%) were in the architectural and engineering activities subsector in Colombia in 2018 (Figure 1.14). Though this is perhaps unsurprising given the slightly broader definition of this category, mentioned above, for illustration, the proportion of CCS enterprises in the architectural activities subsector ranged from 5% in Norway to 29% in Greece. Colombia also has strengths in specialised design, photography and translation and interpretation, with this subsector accounting for 31% of all CCS enterprises and in the retail trade of books, newspapers and music accounting for 13% of all CCS enterprises. This strength in retail is particularly apparent when compared to most other OECD countries, with Italy being the only other OECD country for which data was available with a share above 10%. See Annex Table 1.A.2 for information on what is included in each subsector.

Figure 1.12. CCS enterprises as a share of all enterprises in the business economy, 2018

Figure 1.13. CCS enterprises (excluding architecture) as a share of all enterprises in the business economy, 2018

Figure 1.14. Share of CCS enterprises by subsector, 2018

Official data show a far larger proportion of CCS businesses in Colombia had at least 10 employees, compared with OECD average. Across the OECD, only 4% of CCS enterprises employed 10 people or more in 2018. In Colombia this figure is just over 10%, ranking it third among OECD countries for which data are available (Figure 1.15). Consistent with the vast majority of OECD countries however, the share businesses with at least 10 employees was smaller in CCS than in the business economy in general at 13%. It is also worth noting that 99.7% of CCS enterprises in the business economy in Colombia were SMEs (fewer than 250 employees), compared to an average of 99.9% of CCS businesses across the OECD. The highest shares of micro enterprises (less than 10 employees) were found in the Manufacturing of jewellery and musical instruments subsector (the subsector most closely linked to traditional crafts), with 97% of these businesses being micro enterprises (Figure 1.16). Publishing and Libraries, archives and museums had the smallest share of micro enterprises, 80% and 76% respectively.

Figure 1.15. Share of enterprises with fewer than 10 employees, 2018

Figure 1.16. CCS enterprises in Colombia by size and subsector, 2018

1.2.3. GVA of Colombia’s CCS is low compared to other OECD countries, but CCS GVA was beginning to trend upwards before the pandemic

Despite relatively high shares of CCS enterprises, their contribution to GVA was low compared to other OECD countries in 2018. In 2018, cultural and creative sectors contributed 0.7% of total business economy GVA compared to an OECD average of 2.2% (Figure 1.17). In part, this reflected Colombia’s relatively low shares of firms operating in higher productivity sub-sectors such as publishing 2 and film, which accounted for 16% and 15% of CCS GVA respectively across the OECD in 2018 (Figure 1.18). For example, only 2% of CCS enterprises in Colombia were in the publishing sector in 2018, compared to an average of 4% of CCS enterprises in OECD countries for which data was available. Similarly, the motion picture, video and television programme production, sound recording and music publishing sector accounted for only 2% of CCS enterprises in Colombia, compared to an average of 13% in the OECD. Colombia have invested in a number of polices targeted towards this sector (see chapter 4) resulting in an increase of 5% in the number of enterprises in this sector between 2018 and 2020.

Figure 1.17. Share of CCS GVA in the business economy across the OECD, 2018

Figure 1.18. Share of CCS enterprises and CCS GVA in the business economy by subsector, 2018

Enhanced data collection in Colombia allows for analysis of some parts of CCS which are not typically available from international sources. The GVA comparisons above derive from sources which do not typically include GVA data for the creative, arts and entertainment activities subsector, or the libraries, archives, museums and other cultural activities subsector. This means that the GVA comparisons above do not account for these sectors. However, as a result of Colombia’s satellite account, it is possible to assess the contribution of these sectors to Colombia’s CCS GVA (Figure 1.19). Here we see that the creative, arts and entertainment activities subsector accounted for around 10% of Colombia’s CCS GVA in 2018, highlighting that the more cultural subsectors of CCS are also important sources of GVA generation.

Figure 1.19. Proportion of Colombia’s CCS GVA by subsector, 2018

GVA growth in Colombia’s CCS was beginning to trend upwards before the pandemic. Annual growth of Colombia’s CCS GVA was beginning to trend upwards after 2017 (Figure 1.20), mirroring the trend seen in the broader Orange Economy (see section 1.1.3). In particular, the creative, arts and entertainment sub-sector recorded an increase of 61% between 2014 and 2019 and the libraries, archives, museums and other cultural activities sub-sector recorded an increase of 22% during this period (Figure 1.21). The effects of the pandemic on the GVA of CCS in general, and on the more traditional cultural sectors heavily affected by social distancing restrictions, is especially evident. GVA of CCS declined by 31% in total between 2019 and 2020, and GVA of the creative, arts and entertainment sub-sector fell by 66%.

Figure 1.20. Annual growth of Colombia’s CCS GVA

Figure 1.21. CCS GVA growth rate, 2014-2019 and 2019-2020

1.2.4. Consumption of cultural goods and services is generally lower in Colombia than in most other OECD countries, with large disparities between those living in municipal capital cities and those living in more peripheral and rural areas

The proportion of household expenditure spent on recreation and culture in Colombia is lower than the majority of OECD countries. Data from Colombia’s system of national accounts (SNA) shows that in 2019, 6.1% of household spending in Colombia was made on recreation and culture, compared to an OECD average of 8.5% (Figure 1.22). This in part reflects the relatively lower average disposable income per capita in Colombia and the discretionary nature of spending on CCS products. Indeed, although household spending on recreation and culture increased in real terms between 2011-2019 its share of total household spending was stable.

Figure 1.22. Percentage of household spending on recreation and culture in OECD countries

Data from Colombia’s National Survey on Quality of Life expenditure module, shows that household spending on recreation and culture more than doubled in 2021, but that spending was uneven across geographies. Colombian survey data shows household spending on recreation and culture increased by 114.4% from 2020 to 2021, and showed the second largest increase of all spending categories after education (DANE, 2022[45]). However, spending on recreation and culture remains uneven across geographies, with those living in municipal capital areas spending, on average, over two times more on recreation and culture than those in dispersed rural and populated centre areas (COP 87 000 compared to COP 41 000, per household). There is also wide variation in household spending on recreation and culture between the different territorial departments in Colombia, with average spending in the capital, Bogotá, over double the national average and over four times higher than the lowest spending region (Figure 1.23).

Figure 1.23. Average expenditure on recreation and culture by department and area, 2021

However, household expenditures underestimate the true scale of engagement. Although expenditure on recreation and culture include some items not included under CCS (e.g. package holidays and on pets, see Box 1.6), it also excludes consumption of (or participation in) free cultural activities.

Box 1.6. Household spending on recreation and culture

What’s included?

Household spending on recreation and culture includes the following categories:

Audio visual, photographic and information processing equipment
Other major durables for recreation and culture
Other recreational items and equipment, gardens and pets
Recreational and cultural services:
- Hire and repair of photographic and cinematographic equipment and optical instruments
- Hire, maintenance and repair of major durables for recreation
- Hire and repair of games, toys and hobbies
- Hire and repair of equipment for sport, camping and open-air recreation
- Veterinary and other services for pets
- Recreational and sporting services
- Games of chance
- Services provided by cinemas, theatres and concert venues
- Services provided by museums, libraries, and cultural sites
- Photographic services
- Other cultural services
Newspapers, books and stationery
Package holidays

Source: UN (2018[46]) Classification of Individual Consumption According to Purpose (COICOP), United Nations, New York.

Colombia’s Cultural Consumption Survey (DANE, 2020[47]) points to relatively average levels of cultural participation for some forms of cultural activity, but low participation for others. For example, before the pandemic in 2017, just over 40% of those aged 12 and over had visited a cinema at least once in the last 12 months (Figure 1.24). This figure is broadly similar to European averages, with data from the European Union Statistics on Income and Living Conditions (EU-SILC) ad hoc module on social and cultural participation in 2015, showing, 45% of the EU27 population aged 16 and over had visited a cinema at least once in the past 12 months (Eurostat, 2015[48]). Attending live music performances was also fairly high in Colombia, with around 30% of the population having attended such an event at least once in the last year, but only 18.2% of people had attended a theatre, opera of dance live event. Across the EU27 in 2015, an average of 42% of people had attended a live event (including music, dance and theatre) (Eurostat, 2015[48]). Moreover, less than 20% of Colombians had participated in other types of cultural activity in 2017, such as visiting a library or a museum. In 2020, cultural participation rates for Colombia followed broadly similar patterns to 2017, with cinema attendance and live music being the most frequent forms of participation. However, participation rates fell across dramatically with the advent of the COVID-19 pandemic, and associated lockdowns and social distancing measures. For example, live music participation dropped 11 percentage points between 2017 and 2020.

Figure 1.24. Proportion of people aged 12 and over who participated in certain cultural activities at least once on the past year: Colombia

Cultural participation rates vary widely across different regions in Colombia. Cultural participation is substantially higher in Bogotá than in other regions of the country (Figure 1.25). For example, in 2020, while cinema attendance was at 46% in Bogotá, the next highest level was only 34% (in the central region) and was as low as 22% in Amazonía / Orinoquia. Only 2% of those living in Caribe had visited a museum in the past year, only 2% had visited an art gallery or exhibition and only 6% had visited a library.

Figure 1.25. Proportion of people aged 12 and over who participated in cultural activities at least once on the past year: Colombian regions

Lack of interest appears to be the biggest barrier to cultural participation. In 2020, lack of interest or dislike was a more commonly cited reason for not participating in cultural activities than lack of money or an absence of cultural amenities for the majority of forms of cultural participation (DANE, 2020[47]). For example, 61% of people cited lack of interest or dislike as the reason for not visiting a library in the past year, 54% of people cited this as the reason for not attending theatre, opera or dance, 49% cited this for museums and 47% indicated this same reason for non-attendance to concerts, recitals, events, presentations or shows of live music. Lack of time was generally the second most highly cited reason, with COVID-19 related restrictions, lack of money and living far away also proving to be barriers.

Survey results suggest that lack of funds may not by the primary driver of non-participation in culture in Colombia, though policy measures can still play a role. In France, although a Culture Pass was introduced in 2019 primarily as a voucher instrument, its specific measures may help address disinterest as well as lack of funds (Box 1.7). For example, its focus on secondary school students can help reinforce the cultural participation habits of citizens at an age to set trends later in life. The voucher’s use of a smartphone application with targeted offers, is also a way to orient participation to activities where youth may be less engaged. Finally, passes for a younger age cohort are administered through school instructors, giving leverage to teachers to strategically engage students based on their training, and complement curricular work. More evidence on the drivers of non-interest may also further inform policy action on cultural participation.

Regional variation in household spending on culture and in cultural participation indicates that there is untapped potential for strengthening the Orange Economy in these areas. Strengthening the economic outlook for the Orange Economy could be helped by developing policy towards increasing cultural participation rates in more rural areas. Cultural participation can contribute to social cohesion and community empowerment (Matarasso, 1997[49]), can boost health and wellbeing (Fancourt and Saoirse, 2019[50]) and can be used to tackle societal issues, such as climate change. However, cultural participation also supports a strong cultural economy. Encouraging greater interest in cultural participation, especially in more rural or less populated areas, could therefore help to both boost local creative ecosystems and to fulfil the wider principles of the Orange Economy policy in supporting community development.

Box 1.7. France’s pass Culture could serve as an innovative practice to complement cultural participation policies in Colombia

France developed the pass Culture, a cultural participation voucher for young people

France’s pass Culture reflects efforts to increase cultural participation by increasing young peoples’ exposure to culture. Building on prior initiatives to strengthen reading and other cultural practices, the policy of the Orange Economy strengthened the role of cultural as different levels of education, including through revised pedagogical guidelines for art education, stronger teacher training in culture and a host of initiatives to develop creative digital talent through curricular links between technology and the arts.

In 2019, France introduced the pass culture, a voucher for young people to participate in cultural services and purchase cultural goods. A simplified joint stock company under French law (société par actions simplifies - SAS), whose stockholders are the Ministry of Culture and the Bank of Territories (Banque des Territoires), administers the pass. The partnership was born out of a partnership between cultural actors, the State, subnational governments and educational actors. The government started the programme as a pilot, opening the pass to youth in selected territories, before generalising the measure.

The pass Culture provides three dedicated programmes for youth of different ages. For those in secondary school, the pass Culture collaborates with the Ministry of Education to offer group credits for schools to engage in cultural activities. Teachers can obtain a group pass through a dedicated website, which earmarks up to EUR 30 per student. For all those aged between 15 and 17, individuals can also obtain credits through a mobile application which grants them between EUR 20 and EUR 30 of credit to spend on cultural activities. For 18 year olds, the pass grants a EUR 300 credit that can be used within 24 months.

Pass credits can be used on a host of goods and services, such as books, concerts and theatre shows, museums, music classes or online cultural subscriptions. The smartphone application through which young people access the pass and its funding also serves as a policy tool to orient, suggest and encourage young people to try new forms of participation in culture and the creative economy.

Culture and creative economy actors, meanwhile, can benefit from pass Culture funds through a dedicated professional platform, doubling the policy’s impact as sectoral stimulus. The platform allows firms and non-profits to advertise their cultural and artistic goods and services to young people. To drive the policy’s capacity to improve the cultural access of vulnerable youth, the government has involved institutions working with vulnerable young people, such as Second Change Schools (Écoles de la Deuxième Chance) or the National Union of Youth Housing (l’Union Nationale des Habitats Jeunes), to ensure access to the pass Culture amongst vulnerable youth.

The pass Culture has already begun to show results on the cultural participation of young people. In October 2021, 782 000 18 year olds opened an account, estimated to reach around 80% of eligible 18 year olds. So far, bookstores have been the primary beneficiaries, receiving 78% of pass Culture funds as of October 2021. Bookstores recorded a substantial rise in sales due to funds from the pass Culture, in particular for manga graphic novels. Music purchases, including concert tickets and digital subscriptions, have also benefit, along with cinemas and audio-visual goods. Emerging evidence from policy practitioners suggests the pass has enabled a significant share of youth participating to benefit from their first exposure to new cultural experiences, such as concerts.

Source: (French Republic, n.d.[51]), Dispositif, https://pass.culture.fr/le-dispositif/; (Blanchard, 2021[52]), Cinq mois après sa généralisation, le Pass culture cherche la bonne formule, https://www.lemonde.fr/culture/article/2021/10/22/cinq-mois-apres-sa-generalisation-le-pass-culture-reste-un-essai-a-transformer_6099477_3246.html; (Grossin, 2021[53]), Le Pass culture pour plus de quatre millions de jeunes, "c'est une belle promesse d'espoir !", https://www.radiofrance.fr/franceculture/le-pass-culture-pour-plus-de-quatre-millions-de-jeunes-c-est-une-belle-promesse-d-espoir-7398723.

1.2.5. Government spending on culture is rising in Colombia

Led by subnational governments, government spending on cultural services has increased in Colombia. Between 2011 and 2019, government spending on culture increased from 0.7% of total government spending to 0.9%, compared to a net stagnation over this period of the OECD average (OECD, 2022[54]). This increase may reflect the budgetary effects of major legislation passed to increase tax revenues for cultural services, such as the Public Performances Law in 2011 (see chapter 4 for details on this law). Subnational governments play a leading role in overall public spending on cultural services. Indeed, in 2019, subnational governments in Colombia accounted for over 84% of total government spending on cultural services, the fourth-highest among selected OECD countries (OECD, 2022[54]). See Chapter 4 for a detailed discussion on public spending on culture.

1.3. Policy considerations

1.3.1. The expansion of the Orange Economy Satellite Account and regional mapping studies have transformed Colombia’s ability to monitor and evaluate the sector, but there remain information needs in some areas

Increasing the information available on Colombia’s CCS has been a success of Colombia’s creative economy strategy. Indeed, across the OECD and G20, measurement has been a key challenge and priority area for CCS development and comparison (OECD, 2021[55]). The Orange Economy satellite account has been instrumental in monitoring the Orange Economy at the national level and the programme to roll out regional satellite accounts will be fundamental to improving the availability of local indicators.

Despite the satellite account being a highly comprehensive resource of value generation and employment data, there remain some gaps in reporting which work could look to address. For example, more regular and disaggregated reporting of business counts in the Orange Economy could help in further interpreting trends in GVA and employment. Additionally, working towards the provision of more disaggregated data in Colombia’s main System of National Accounts (SNA) could aid in international benchmarking of CCS. For example, reporting on household spending at lower levels of disaggregation would enable comparisons of household spending on cultural services, a more accurate reflection of cultural demand than the broader recreation and culture category. Similarly, reporting enterprise counts at the most disaggregated level possible would enable better identification of CCS businesses and thus aid in international benchmarking to guide national policy efforts.

There is also scope to improve employment data. For example, more detailed data on demographic characteristics of the full Orange Economy workforce (such as age, gender etc.) beyond only those in formal employment would be useful. Moreover, enhanced reporting on the characteristics of both full and part time work (such as average hours worked, income distribution, contractual status, motivation for working in the sector) could help in identifying those in precarious forms of work. Whilst gathering data on second jobs and on informal workers is challenging, taking steps towards improving estimates of these groups as well, would aid in gaining a fuller picture of the sector and its labour dynamics.

Colombia could also look to produce data on Orange Economy workers throughout the economy. As much of the Orange Economy policy surrounds skills provision, gaining a greater understanding of how this policy may be enhancing employment prospects for those in cultural and creative jobs outside of Orange Economy is needed. Cultural and creative workers are known to migrate in and out of cultural and creative industry sectors over their careers, bringing their skills and expertise to other sectors of the economy. Gaining an understanding of the scale of these workers throughout the economy could be a first step towards understanding the broader benefits of the Orange Economy (for example, through contributing to innovation and value generation in other industry sectors). This would require expanding the methodology and developing occupation codes to compliment the industry codes developed through the satellite account.

1.3.2. Even before the pandemic, GVA generation in the Orange Economy was uneven across sectors and policy could look to address where productivity gaps are growing

The Orange Economy policy covers a wide range of different sectors, which will each have varying dynamics and needs. As highlighted by the different rates of GVA growth across the subsectors of the Orange Economy, each sector is influenced by different structural dynamics and external trends. For example, increased digitisation of the publishing sector internationally, is likely to be contributing to the GVA decline we see in this sector in Colombia. Policy could look to investigate productivity gaps and declining GVA at a sectoral level, by commissioning further research into the specific needs and dynamics of each part of the Orange Economy. Moreover, policy could look to further integrate sector specific advice and business support within existing national and local frameworks.

Boosting GVA of the Orange Economy also requires significant consideration of the particular characteristics of self-employed work. Before the pandemic, there was a general trend towards more self-employment in the Orange Economy. Self-employed workers in cultural and creative sectors generally work in more flexible, project-based conditions and generally experience less steady income streams than those in salaried work. Targeting business support programmes specifically towards self-employed workers could help them to navigate these complexities and boost their opportunities to generate revenues.

1.3.3. While the Orange Economy policy appears to have stimulated the supply side of the cultural economy, a renewed focus on encouraging cultural participation could help strengthen the sector

Household spending on culture and recreation is low in Colombia compared to other countries, as are participation rates in some forms of cultural activity. Cultural participation can contribute to social cohesion and community empowerment (Matarasso, 1997[49]), can boost health and wellbeing (Fancourt and Saoirse, 2019[50]) and can be used to tackle societal issues, such as climate change. However, beyond the intrinsic value of cultural participation and the additional benefits it can bring to communities and society at large, cultural participation (demand side) also encourages growth of the cultural and creative sector (supply side). A greater focus on encouraging cultural participation in Colombia could therefore greatly aid the efforts of the Orange Economy policy to drive development and growth.

Addressing cultural participation in non-capital and rural areas could be instrumental in boosting the Orange Economy and fulfilling the wider objectives of the policy. Cultural participation rates are particularly low in regions such as Caribe and household spending on culture is substantially lower for those living outside of cities. Encouraging interest in cultural participation in the more peripheral areas of the country and promoting cultural participation for underrepresented groups would offer a necessary synergy to the more supply side initiatives of the Orange Economy policy (such as business supports and tax reliefs) already implemented in these regions.

Colombia is well placed to deepen cultural participation due to its transversal policy approach for the creative economy. The National Council of the Orange Economy (Consejo Nacional de Economía Naranja – CNEN), for example, has already helped culture rise on the policy agenda of Ministries across the Colombian government. Stimulating the cultural consumption habits of young people, driving early exposure, may help instil adult participation habits, fostering long-term demand. The development of a culture pass for students, as has been experimented with in France through a smartphone application (Box 1.7), for instance, may complement the host of policies taken to raise cultural awareness in secondary school. Another relevant example for Colombia to consider is Brazil’s Vale Cultura pass, a cultural participation voucher distributed to low and middle-income workers through their employers, which works as an employer tax incentive. Workers who receive it can use monetary credit to purchase cultural goods and services.

Colombia’s National Survey of Cultural Habits could form the basis of policy action in the field. The survey already reviews a host of cultural participation activities within the population, such as the type of cultural activity citizens’ participate in. Steps are being taken within Colombia’s Ministry of Culture to strengthen surveying of the population’s cultural participation habits. As Colombia considers new questions and methods for its survey, Chile’s diverse use of surveys, such as studies on factors driving cultural participation, may be an example to consider. In Chile, for example, a 2020 study based on the country’s National Cultural Participation Survey concluded that youth exposure to the arts and cultural are a predictor of adult cultural participation (Ministry of Cultures, Arts and Heritage, 2020[56]). Chile’s results echo the objectives of France’s cultural pass, which incites youth participation in culture.

Other potential mechanisms to support cultural participation are discusses in chapters 2 and 3.

References

[52] Blanchard, S. (2021), Cinq mois après sa généralisation, le Pass culture cherche la bonne formule, https://www.lemonde.fr/culture/article/2021/10/22/cinq-mois-apres-sa-generalisation-le-pass-culture-reste-un-essai-a-transformer_6099477_3246.html.

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Annex 1.A. Sectors of the Orange Economy and the Eurostat definition of cultural and creative sectors

Annex Table 1.A.1. Sectors included in the Orange Economy
Group	Sub-sector	Sector	ISIC Rev.4
Arts and Heritage	Associative and regulatory activities	*Activities of professional associations	9412
		*Other associative activities nec	9499
		*Executive activities of the public administration	8412
		*Regulation of the activities of organizations that provide health, educational, cultural and other social services, except social security services	8413
	Manufacturing activities of the orange economy	*Production of malt, brewing of beers and other malted beverages	1103
		*Weaving of textile products	1312
		*Finishing of textile products	1313
		*Manufacture of knitted and crocheted fabrics	1391
		*Manufacture of articles made of textile materials, except clothing	1392
		*Manufacture of floor mats and carpets	1393
		*Manufacture of other textile articles nec	1399
		*Manufacture of garments, except leather garments	1410
		*Manufacture of leather goods	1420
		*Manufacture of knitted and crocheted articles	1430
		*Manufacture of travel goods, handbags and similar articles made of leather, and manufacture of saddlery and harness	1512
		*Manufacture of leather and fur footwear, with any type of sole	1521
		*Manufacture of other types of footwear, except leather and fur footwear	1522
		*Manufacture of wooden containers	1640
		*Manufacture of other wood products; manufacture of articles of cork, basketry and straw	1690
		*Manufacture of glass and glass products	2310
		*Manufacture of other ceramic and porcelain products	2393
		*Cutting, shaping and finishing of stone	2396
		*Forging, pressing, stamping and rolling of metal; powder metallurgy	2591
		*Manufacture of other fabricated metal products nec	2599
		*Furniture manufacturing	3110
		*Retail trade of clothing and accessories (including leather goods) in specialized stores	4771
		*Retail sale of all types of footwear and leather goods and leather substitutes in specialized stores	4772
	Performing arts and shows	theatrical creation	9003
		Live musical activities	9007
		theatrical activities	9006
		Other live entertainment activities	9008
	visual arts	Plastic and visual arts	9005
	visual arts	photography activities	7420
	Cultural and creative education	*early childhood education	8511
		*Preschool education	8512
		*Primary basic education	8513
		*secondary education	8521
		*Academic secondary education	8522
		*Secondary technical education and job training	8523
		*Establishments that combine different levels of education	8530
		*Vocational Technical Education	8541
		*Technologic education	8542
		*Education of university institutions or technological schools	8543
		*university education	8544
		*Non-formal academic training	8551
		culture teaching	8553
	Cultural heritage	*Research and experimental development in the field of natural sciences and engineering	7210
		*Research and experimental development in the field of social sciences and humanities	7220
		Amusement park and theme park activities	9321
		Library and archive activities	9101
		Activities and operation of museums, conservation of historic buildings and sites	9102
		Activities of botanical gardens, zoos and nature reserves	9103
	Cultural tourism	*Rail passenger transport	4911
		*Passenger Transportation	4921
		*River passenger transport	5021
		*hotel accommodation	5511
		*Accommodation in aparthotels	5512
		*Accommodation in resorts	5513
		*Rural accommodation	5514
		*Other types of visitor accommodation	5519
		*Campground Activities and RV Parks	5520
		*Expenditure at the table of prepared foods	5611
		*Self-service sale of prepared meals	5612
		*Sale of prepared foods in cafeterias	5613
*Other types of sale of prepared meals nec		5619
*Sale of alcoholic beverages for consumption within the establishment		5630
*Other reservation services and related activities		7990
*Travel agency activities		7911
Cultural Industries	News agencies and other information services	Other information service activities nec	6399
	News agencies and other information services	news agency activities	6391
	Audiovisual	*Satellite telecommunication activities	6130
		Programming and transmission activities in the sound broadcasting service	6010
		Television programming and broadcasting activities	6020
		*Wired telecommunications activities	6110
		*Retail trade of other cultural and entertainment articles nec in specialized establishments	4769
		Production activities for motion pictures, videos, programs, advertisements and television commercials	5911
		Post-production activities for motion pictures, videos, programs, advertisements and television commercials	5912
		Motion picture, video, program, advertisement and television commercial distribution activities	5913
		Motion picture and video exhibition activities	5914
	Publishing	Literary creation	9001
		*Other professional, scientific and technical activities nec	7490
		*Printing related service activities	1812
		*printing activities	1811
		*Retail sale of books, newspapers, materials and stationery and stationery items in specialized establishments	4761
		book publishing	5811
		Other editing work	5819
		Publishing of newspapers, magazines and periodicals	5813
	Phonographic	Production of copies from original recordings	1820
		Sound recording and music editing activities	5920
		music creation	9002
	Cultural industries	Audiovisual creation	9004
Creative Industries	Design	*Manufacture of jewellery, costume jewelery and related articles	3210
		Manufacture of musical instruments	3220
		Manufacture of games, toys and puzzles	3240
		Specialized design activities	7410
		*Architectural and engineering activities and other related technical consultancy activities	7110
	Digital media and software	*Retail trade of computers, peripheral equipment, software and telecommunications equipment in specialized stores	4741
		Edition of computer programs (software)	5820
		Computer systems development activities (planning, analysis, design, programming, testing)	6201
		*Computer consultancy activities and computer facilities management activities	6202
		*Data processing, hosting and related activities	6311
		Website	6312
	Advertising	Advertising	7310
Note: Sectors marked with * indicate partial inclusion
Source: DANE (n.d.[42]), Economic activities of the Orange Economy, https://www.dane.gov.co/index.php/estadisticas-por-tema/cultura/economia-naranja/actividades#listado-de-actividades-de-inclusion-total-34.

Annex Table 1.A.2. Cultural and creative sectors used in international comparison
Eurostat definition
Subsector group	NACE Rev2 Code and description
Printing and reproduction of recorded media	18.1 Printing and service activities related to printing
Printing and reproduction of recorded media	18.2 Reproduction of recorded media
Manufacturing of jewellery and musical instruments	32.12 Manufacture of jewellery and related articles
Manufacturing of jewellery and musical instruments	32.2 Manufacture of musical instruments
Retail trade of books, newspapers and music	47.61 Retail sale of books in specialised stores
	47.62 Retail sale of newspapers and stationery in specialised stores
	47.63 Retail sale of music and video recordings in specialised stores
Publishing	58.1 Publishing of books, periodicals and other publishing activities
	58.11 Book publishing
	58.13 Publishing of newspapers
	58.14 Publishing of journals and periodicals
	58.21 Publishing of computer games
Motion picture, video and television programme production, sound recording and music publishing	59.11 Motion picture, video and television programme production activities
	59.12 Motion picture, video and television programme post-production activities
	59.13 Motion picture, video and television programme distribution activities
	59.14 Motion picture projection activities
	59.2 Sound recording and music publishing activities
Programming and broadcasting	60.1 Radio broadcasting
Programming and broadcasting	60.2 Television programming and broadcasting activities
News agency activities	63.91 News agency activities
Architectural activities	71.11 Architectural activities
Specialised design, photography and translation and interpretation	74.1 Specialised design activities
	74.2 Photographic activities
	74.3 Translation and interpretation activities
Rental and leasing activities	77.22 Renting of video tapes and disks
Creative, arts and entertainment activities	90.0 Creative, arts and entertainment activities
	90.0.1 Performing arts
	90.0.2 Support activities to performing arts
	90.0.3 Artistic creation
	90.0.4 Operation of arts facilities
Libraries, archives, museums and other cultural activities	91.0 Libraries, archives, museums and other cultural activities
Libraries, archives, museums and other cultural activities
Note: NACE refers to the statistical classification of economic activities in the European community. Revision 2 is the most recent version at the time of preparing this report.
Source: Adapted from Eurostat (Eurostat, 2018[31]), Guide to Eurostat Culture Statistics, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg

Notes

← 1. Ministry of Culture estimate based on DANE data. Original information sources: 1.) Gran Encuesta Integrada de Hogares: Total de ocupados en actividades económicas del sector cultural y creativo formales e informales 2.) Registro de Relaciones Laborales (RELAB): total de relaciones laborales formales del sector cultural y creativo que realizan pagos a seguridad social reportado a partir de la PILA (Planilla Integrada de Liquidación de Aportes).

← 2. Note that publishing of computer games is included in the Eurostat definition of the publishing sector, which largely accounts for the high GVA of this sector. Computer games are not included in Colombia’s definition of the publishing sector, used in the first part of this chapter.

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