4. Opportunities and tools for fostering a blue recovery
This chapter highlights a set of cross-cutting and sector-specific opportunities to encourage sustainable development of Samoa’s blue economy. The first subsection offers cross-cutting recommendations that apply broadly to Samoa’s ocean economy, while the second subsection outlines sector-specific recommendations for sustainable tourism, fisheries, maritime transport and emerging sectors of the ocean economy.
Unlocking the potential of Samoa’s ocean economy requires capitalising on both cross-cutting and industry-specific opportunities. Section 4.1 outlines a targeted set of cross-cutting opportunities, emphasising the importance of a systematic approach for effective policy making, with regular monitoring, evaluation and precise measurements of the ocean economy. It also urges addressing the constraints in place, such as limited fiscal space and the volatility of the labour market, to facilitate the development of the ocean economy. The sector-specific opportunities presented in Section 4.2 offer various opportunities for growth and diversification, recognising the promise that ocean-based industries hold for driving resilient and sustainable development. Sustainable tourism, for example, could offer Samoa substantial benefits if a holistic approach focusing on economic growth, social development and environmental conservation were adopted. Efforts to enhance the potential of the fisheries sector would have to include robust fisheries management to preserve the long-term sustainability of fish stocks, and investment to fortify the sector's resilience to external shocks. Maritime transport also offers considerable promise, both in terms of strategic development of onshore activities and the potential benefits of decarbonisation. Although they are still in their infancy, emerging sectors such as maritime renewable energy, marine biotechnology and aquaculture offer further opportunities for innovation and value adding.
To support these recommendations and add value to Samoa’s ocean-related and development goals, the appraisal highlights two areas on which the next stages of the Blue Recovery Hub can concentrate. The Blue Recovery Hub can facilitate the mobilisation and alignment of financial and technical assistance to implement the SOS. By linking the environmental, economic and social components of the sustainable ocean economy, the Blue Recovery Hub can help reinforce the connection between the SOS and its economic vision for key ocean-related sectors (outlined in Samoa’s national development plans and sectoral strategies).
Enhancing the contribution of the ocean economy to Samoa’s long-term growth requires addressing constraints inhibiting the development of key sectors
One of the challenges Samoa faces in developing its ocean economy is the volatility of its labour market. Labour mobility programmes, like New Zealand’s Recognised Seasonal Employer and Australia’s Pacific Labour Scheme, provide valuable opportunities for Samoans to work abroad. In recent years, these programmes have boosted remittances to Samoa, providing additional income for its citizens. This increase in labour mobility, however, poses some challenges to Samoa’s sustainable development, resulting in a loss of skilled and prime-aged labour force in key sectors of the economy. Coastal tourism, for example, sometimes has difficulty recruiting or retaining qualified staff.
Addressing this labour volatility and shortage requires the government to develop targeted measures to minimise the negative impact of these schemes on the labour market. This can be achieved through consultations with stakeholders of affected sectors to discuss possible mitigation or prevention measures. Improved monitoring of labour flows, policies incentivising the return of skilled workers and close collaboration with the authorities of host countries can also help ensure that labour mobility does not undermine the potential of Samoa’s ocean economy.
Another significant constraint for Samoa’s ocean economy is the lack of skilled labour and technical expertise specific to the blue economy. A blue economy vision will require balancing economic growth with the sustainable use of ocean resources. This, in turn, requires local professionals with specialised knowledge in areas like sustainable tourism, ecosystem-based management, biotechnology and marine spatial planning. Samoa has taken steps to develop local expertise in key ocean-related sectors (e.g. the decision of the Scientific Research Organisation of Samoa to create a marine research division), but its public and private sectors compete with regional and international organisations to attract or retain qualified profiles.
Samoa’s approach to marine spatial planning provides a model for building local capacity in its ocean-related sectors. As described in Section 2.1, Samoa is developing a marine spatial plan (MSP) financed by the European Union, with technical support from the International Union for Conservation of Nature. It could also explore opportunities to establish similar partnerships with other regional and international organisations, academic institutions and practice sector entities willing to provide technical assistance and capacity building to local practitioners and communities in key areas of the ocean economy. These collaborations could involve joint research projects, the exchange of expertise and the development of tailored training programmes focused on blue economy sectors and activities, along the lines of Jamaica’s Blue Economy Training Programme (Box 1.1). Such technical support and capacity building could expand existing support for private sector development that Samoa already receives from its development partners, like Australia and New Zealand. These partnerships could target skills development in industries with growth potential, such as tourism, value-adding activities in the fisheries sector, and emerging sectors such as renewable energy. If this technical support is to be sustainable, it is crucial to ensure that it incorporates a long-term perspective. This can be achieved by fostering the development of local expertise through capacity development or by securing continued support from legacy partners to guarantee continuity and resilience in Samoa’s ocean economy approach.
The Jamaica Social Investment Fund’s Blue Economy Training Programme supports capacity-building in the blue economy. The initiative is administered by Jamaica’s Social Investment Fund, a government agency established in 1996 to mobilise resources and run projects to support community-based socioeconomic infrastructure and social services projects. The programme is a component of the fund’s Alternative Livelihoods Skills and Development Project and provides skills development for young Jamaicans in areas relevant to the country’s blue economy, such as boat and equipment handling and repairs, lifeguarding, scuba diving and underwater filming.
The training programme aims to empower local communities and ensure they contribute to, and benefit from, the growth of the ocean economy. The Blue Economy Training Programme, led by the government of Jamaica with support from the World Bank, involves a partnership with the RE School of Education and Technology, a local training institution. The 165 participants from the first cohort were recruited by the Community Development Committees in the communities. As a result, the training aims not only to contribute to job creation and economic diversification but also to equip communities with the expertise to manage, develop and use the country’s ocean resources sustainably.
Source: High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy (2021[1]), “Creating a Sustainable Ocean Economy”, https://oceanpanel.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Ocean-Panel-_Progress-Report-2021.pdf; Jamaica Special Economic Zone Authority (2020[2]) 165 Unattached Youth Graduate From JSIF’s Blue Economy Training Programme, https://www.jseza.com/165-unattached-youth-graduate-from-jsifs-blue-economy-training-programme/.
Continued co-ordination with regional partners is another avenue for overcoming capacity constraints and developing Samoa’s ocean economy. Although the economy of Samoa is closely linked to the ocean, an ocean economy approach, which emphasises the sustainable use of marine resources for economic growth, is a relatively new concept and requires specialised knowledge and skills not always available locally. Small island states like Samoa face financial challenges attempting to invest in emerging sectors of the ocean economy, such as marine biotechnology, aquaculture or marine renewable energy, since they often require significant upfront investment that comes with considerable risk.
Pacific small island developing states (SIDS) have a long tradition of regional collaboration, which could play a critical role in pooling capacity and sharing knowledge on emerging ocean economy sectors and approaches. Regional conferences, workshops and training programmes on the ocean economy can help Samoa learn from the successes and challenges faced by other SIDS in the region. Such platforms can facilitate the sharing and joint implementation of best practices, innovative technologies and policy frameworks related to the sustainable use of marine resources. By pooling resources and expertise, Samoa could also participate in joint research initiatives that focus on marine biotechnology, marine renewable energy or climate resilience. Lastly, regional approaches could help overcome the challenge faced by many SIDS in attracting private investment in emerging industries, due to their small market size, which hinders economies of scale. Existing regional institutions (e.g., Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme, Pacific Community, Pacific Island Forum) are well-placed to advance coordination and collaboration in this domain.
In its approach to ocean governance, Samoa stands to benefit from strengthening cross-sectoral linkages and better integrating economic, social and environmental goals.
The Samoa Ocean Strategy (SOS) lays the foundation for a holistic approach to ocean management, but some areas warrant additional integration and coherence. Extensive stakeholder consultations, including with local actors, have informed the formulation of the SOS, rendering it reflective of a diverse array of ocean uses and pressures. A central component, the National Ocean Steering Committee (NOSC), is a vital mechanism for co-ordinating ocean-related policy. The way national planning instruments relate to the Samoa Ocean Strategy is sometimes ambiguous or tenuous, however. The sector plans generally do not refer to the SOS or its Solutions, even though some were released after the SOS. The SOS maps its Solutions to the National Environment Sector Plan but does not outline links with other ocean-relevant sectoral plans. Although all policy frameworks in Samoa should, in principle, be aligned, interviews conducted for this report revealed that the SOS was not consistently and explicitly used in informing sectoral policies or development partner engagement. These gaps risk creating a disconnect between economic, social and environmental objectives that are articulated in different ways and to different degrees in each of the policy and governance frameworks.
Detailed articulation of the SOS and Samoa’s national development plan can clarify links between environmental and socioeconomic objectives, and enable the implementation of ocean-related policies. Samoa’s long and medium-term development plans occupy a central role in its policy landscape. They shape all other national and subnational policies, and inform development partners’ priorities, which makes it critical to align the SOS with the national development plans. While the SOS does map its Solutions to the previous iteration of the national development plan (the Strategy for the Development of Samoa), this mapping is quite superficial and results in ambiguity over the link between the SOS and the development plan's socioeconomic priorities. The recent launch of a new five-year development plan (Pathway for the Development of Samoa) offers an opportunity to update this and explicitly articulate how the SOS is linked to the country’s core development ambitions. This could be done by mapping the Solutions to PDS’s Key Priority Areas, which are more precise and an apt basis for comparison than the SDS’s Priority Areas (to which the SOS is currently mapped).
By systematically using the SOS as a basis for ocean-relevant policies and programmes, Samoa can promote an integrated approach to ocean governance (see Box 1.2 for two case studies). Akin to the Pathway for the Development of Samoa – which guides sustainable development ambitions broadly – the Samoa Ocean Strategy can serve as the foundation for ocean-related activities across sectors and jurisdictions. The completion of the MSP, including its eventual integration into Samoa’s legal and regulatory frameworks, will mark a key step in mainstreaming the SOS across the government. The role of the SOS could nonetheless be reinforced. Samoa is developing or updating many sector-specific policies directly relevant to its ocean strategy. In addition to explicit references to the SOS, the new policies would benefit from heeding the SOS and how its prioritised thematic areas, threats, and solutions relate to and affect the sector’s goals and objectives. The SOS could also present an explicit mapping of its Solutions to the priority areas of sector-specific strategies, as it does for the National Environment Sector Plan.
The Norwegian Ocean Management Plans
Since 2006, Norway has developed a series of ocean management plans to manage different marine and coastal areas in its Exclusive Economic Zone.
Norway’s experience with holistic ocean management provides several important lessons, including:
The importance of policy co-ordination: Through two different co-ordinating forums (one focused on developing management plans and the other on generating the scientific basis for the management plans), Norway has brought together researchers and agencies from various sectors to promote a better understanding of different stakeholders’ objectives and methods.
Role of sectoral policies and legislations: The implementation of Norway’s ocean management plans is carried out through sector-based policies (e.g. regulations). These policies are vital for operationalising the ocean management plans and ensuring the successful delivery of their objectives.
Mexico’s Implementation Strategy for a Sustainable Ocean Economy
The Estrategía para una Economía Oceánica Sostenible en México 2021–2024 outlines 13 priority areas vital for achieving a sustainable ocean economy.
Informed by the High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy, five Transformations for a Sustainable Ocean Economy (ocean wealth, ocean health, ocean knowledge, ocean finance and ocean equity), the priority areas were selected after a review of existing policy instruments and a national consultation.
The Strategy is not designed to replace existing instruments or programmes but is a guide for policy action and initiatives relevant to a sustainable ocean economy, across different government agencies and institutions.
Source: High Level Panel for a Sustainable Ocean Economy (2021[1]), Creating a Sustainable Ocean Economy, https://oceanpanel.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Ocean-Panel-_Progress-Report-2021.pdf; Government of Mexico (2022[3]), “Mexico announces the publication of its Implementation Strategy for a Sustainable Ocean Economy”, https://www.gob.mx/sre/prensa/mexico-announces-the-publication-of-its-implementation-strategy-for-a-sustainable-ocean-economy?idiom=en.
In the aftermath of COVID-19, effective use of the NOSC can facilitate policy coordination. While there is some scope to bolster membership, the NOSC broadly includes all ministries relevant to the Samoan ocean economy. This includes the Ministry of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, which oversees the screening, co-ordinating and monitoring of national policy. The NOSC is hence an ideal platform for promoting common understanding and concerted implementation of ocean-related policies across different ministries, policy frameworks and the sectors under their jurisdiction. The inclusion of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade and the Ministry of Finance is also noteworthy given their role in aid coordination for the country, meaning that they can serve as conduits for development partner support to implement the SOS.
Maintaining support from local communities is essential. The development and early stages of implementation of the SOS have featured extensive stakeholder consultation, including with local communities. This has enabled the government to craft an inclusive instrument that has won buy-in from stakeholders. The introduction of the district development programme enhances and builds on pre-existing domains of local ownership (e.g., adaptation planning, community-based fisheries management). As such, in addition to fostering social inclusion, continued engagement with local communities remains vital for policy legitimacy and thus a key driver of SOS implementation.
Successful delivery of the SOS requires costing, regular monitoring and evaluation.
Identifying resource needs and financing sources is indispensable for charting a course forward. SOS implementation is contingent on adequate financing and capacity. A costing exercise of the SOS, to assess the financing needs and revenue-generating or cost-saving potential of different policy areas, could help the government prioritise spending needs and expedite execution of the SOS. Going forward, a clear elaboration of the costs of implementation and the technical assistance needed is a priority.
Clarifying the timeline can facilitate realistic and successful delivery of the SOS. For each Solution, Samoa has outlined specific objectives and milestones, with a corresponding deadline for implementation. However, pandemic-related delays have disrupted progress, and several foundational objectives and goals have not been achieved by the proposed deadlines. Samoa’s emergence from the pandemic, as programmes restart, offers an opportunity to reformulate the timeline for the SOS and to ensure that its milestones are realistic. Reissuing an updated timeline to stakeholders (e.g. constituents, government agencies and development partners), either with a revision of the SOS or through a corollary document, could present a clear understanding of the next steps and necessary inputs.
Regular monitoring and periodic evaluation are necessary to keep the SOS implementation on track. The SOS defines indicators to measure progress on its goals. These are generally relevant to the goals of the SOS, but it is not clear whether they rely on existing data or whether they require additional data collection, and which institution is responsible for them. Although the responsibility for monitoring and evaluation is assigned to the NOSC, no clear framework and process for monitoring progress and evaluating effectiveness has been set up (e.g. a data dashboard or annual evaluations). Addressing these shortfalls is important for Samoa to be able to identify and address impediments to the implementation of the SOS while ensuring that its actions effectively further the country’s vision for its ocean. Samoa could benefit from benchmarking countries such as Portugal and Fiji. While Portugal has a dedicated section on monitoring, evaluation and review in its National Ocean Strategy (Government of Portugal, 2013[4]), Fiji has committed to a Monitoring, Evaluation and Learning process and is expected to release an annual report indicating progress along a set of verifiable key indicators (Republic of Fiji, 2020[5]).
Limited fiscal space, calls for a prioritisation of public investments and the efficient use of concessional finance
Limited fiscal space should be used to prioritise investments that enhance Samoa’s climate resilience. Fiscal prudence, in line with Samoa’s medium-term debt strategy and the International Monetary Fund-World Bank debt sustainability assessment, leaves the government little, if any, room to take on additional public debt, which could reduce opportunities for public investment in the near future. In light of Samoa’s high vulnerability to climate disasters, however, public investment in climate resilience can mitigate concerns about long-term debt sustainability. There is a need for systematic integration of climate resilience considerations and sectoral and SOS-related adaptation plans into the public budgeting and investment process.
Official development assistance (ODA) offers significant relief for Samoa’s budget pressures and should be used to enable investment in the ocean economy. Samoa already receives relatively high levels of ocean economy ODA, but donors could more explicitly align their support with SOS priorities. This could involve facilitating the aims of the SOS through support for capacity building and the advancement of ocean knowledge, as well as sectoral assistance for priority areas such as the sustainable management of fisheries, tourism, and land-based pollution, among others. Since donor support for Samoa is based on the government’s stated policy priorities and requests for support, a prerequisite for better donor alignment with the SOS would be to explicitly and systematically incorporate the SOS into Samoa’s aid co-ordination with both bilateral development partners and regional implementing partners.
By proactively identifying and implementing additional financing instruments, Samoa can advance its ocean-related ambitions. As recommended by the International Monetary Fund Climate Macroeconomic Assessment Program, Samoa can explore how to expand insurance coverage of key public assets. By building on existing programmes piloting payment for ecosystem services in Samoa, the government can consider how to expand, replicate and modify these programmes to align them with the SOS. It could also explore innovative financing mechanisms. In the mid to long-term, the government can consider blue bonds or loans, either issued by the sovereign government or by development finance institutions like the Development Bank of Samoa, to raise financing earmarked for ocean-related projects and assets. By closely following the development of the blue carbon market, including advances in measurement and verification methodologies, the government can also explore whether and how to apply blue carbon solutions in the Samoan context. Donor assistance, both technical and financial, can help ensure the commercial feasibility of these instruments and lay the groundwork to meet technical requirements (e.g. the development of a blue bond framework and eligible project preparation and identification, carbon measurement and valuation for blue carbon projects). Box 1.3 shows an innovative financing mechanism for marine conservation and protection.
Financing marine protection and conservation remains a challenge, due to the lack of immediate and visible financial return on related investments, as well as difficulties in factoring in the value of natural capital in market prices. Scarce public resources reinforce the need to develop and deploy innovative mechanisms to meet the financing need for marine conservation and protection.
In 2022, Indonesia launched the Blue Halo S initiative to address this challenge. Blue Halo S operates on the premise that ecological health is a prerequisite for ocean-based economic activity. It seeks to fund environmental protection using the economic benefits generated by the sustainable use of marine resources.
In particular, the initiative aims to integrate marine protection and sustainable fisheries management. Initially drawing on an allocation from the Green Climate Fund, as well as Conservation International, the Blue Halo S initiative aims to be entirely self-funded and mobilise over USD 300 million through a blended finance approach, leveraging a grant facility as well as a blue bond.
Source: Government of Indonesia (2022[6]), “Ocean20: A New Self-Funded Marine Resource Management Framework”, https://www.conservation.org/press-releases/2022/11/14/ocean20-a-new-self-funded-marine-resource-management-framework.
Precise, robust measurement of Samoa’s sustainable ocean economy would serve as a basis for effective policy making and delivery
To date, a complete and precise picture of the size of Samoa’s ocean economy and its relationship to the marine environment is unavailable. This report relies on industry classifications in Samoa’s national accounts to assess the size and trends of the country’s ocean economy. While these classifications encompass ocean-based industries, the data is not sufficiently disaggregated to be able to disentangle ocean-related economic activities from those not attributable to the ocean. Ocean economy satellite accounts are one methodological solution for measuring the ocean economy. With its tourism satellite account pilot, Samoa has taken initial steps to evaluate the full economic impact of tourism. Linking the tourism satellite account with its waste and energy accounts has also allowed for a preliminary quantification of the relationship between the tourism sector and resource use and marine pollution. These efforts have, nonetheless, been limited in scope, and a thorough understanding of the ocean economy-marine environment relationship remains elusive, especially due to data architecture issues (e.g. gaps in data, insufficient data sharing).
Better measurement would provide a more robust evidence base for ocean-related policy making. Samoa’s satellite account pilots have strengthened its national statistical systems (UNESCAP, 2020[7]) and laid the groundwork for efforts to develop more comprehensive ocean satellite accounts. The OECD’s definition and list of ocean economy activities for statistical purposes (see Box 1.4) can help concretise the ocean economy and inform Samoa’s measurement efforts. While Samoa would benefit from further work on environmental-economic accounting broadly, it is worth noting that the valuation of natural capital, including ecosystem services, in ways consistent with economic accounts, is a global undertaking, and the methodologies are still evolving.
Given Samoa’s capacity constraints, a staged approach is appropriate and adequate support essential. In the short to medium term, prioritising the completion of its tourism satellite account is sensible, especially since the sector is the largest of its ocean economy and has clear dependencies and repercussions on the marine environment. Developing comprehensive ocean or marine accounts would be a more ambitious undertaking, which could be informed by the lessons from the development of the tourism satellite account. It would also require a stock taking of the requisite data, capacity and financing, and identifying appropriate partners for support (UNESCAP, 2019[8]). Given the active involvement of the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific in Samoa’s tourism satellite account pilot and more generally, in the development of a System of Environmental-Economic Accounting in Asia and the Pacific, it is well-placed to guide Samoa’s work in this domain.
Definition of ocean economy activities
Drawing on the various relationships between the ocean and the economy, the OECD defines ocean economy activities as the following:
Activities that produce goods and services primarily for use on or in the ocean
Activities that extract non-living resources from the marine environment and/or harvest living resources from the marine environment
Activities that use living resources harvested from the marine environment as intermediate inputs
Activities that would likely not take place were they not located in proximity to the ocean
Activities that gain a particular advantage by being in proximity to the ocean
List of ocean economy activities
Based on the definition of ocean economy activities outlined above and using the International Standard Industrial Classification for All Economic Activities, the OECD identified a list of specific ocean economic activities. They are as follows:
Processing and preserving of marine fish, crustaceans and molluscs
Maritime ports and support activities for maritime transport
Source: Jolliffe, Jolly and Stevens (2021[9]), “Blueprint for improved measurement of the international ocean economy: An exploration of satellite accounting for ocean economic activity”, https://doi.org/10.1787/aff5375b-en.
Sustainable tourism
While tourism has significant growth potential in Samoa, a sustainable approach requires considering its social and environmental costs. Mass tourism can result in environmental degradation and loss of biodiversity, due to increased pressures on natural resources. Experience shows that in some cases, the environmental and social costs of mass tourism outweigh its economic benefits (Asian Development Bank, 2020[10]). This realisation calls for new approaches to maximise the positive economic impact of the tourism industry while minimising its negative effects on the environment, to ensure that tourism drives long-term, sustainable growth.
Sustainable tourism can unlock significant benefits for Samoa, from economic growth to social development and environmental conservation. By prioritising sustainable tourism initiatives and practices, Samoa can position itself as a responsible tourism destination offering unique experiences and supporting the preservation of its natural and social capital. This can help it differentiate itself from competing tourism destinations and provide visibility for its efforts to protect its ocean resources. Examples from early adopters of a sustainable tourism approach, such as Costa Rica and Palau, illustrate its potential to reconcile economic, social and environmental considerations (Box 1.5).
Costa Rica’s Certification for Sustainable Tourism
Costa Rica has been a pioneer in developing a sustainable tourism approach through its Certification for Sustainable Tourism. A voluntary accreditation programme, it was launched in 1997 and designed to recognise and promote environmentally responsible and sustainable practices in its tourism industry. The initiative, administered by the Costa Rican Tourism Board, assesses participating businesses based on a set of rigorous criteria, including efficient use of natural resources, waste management, biodiversity conservation and socioeconomic benefits for local communities. Participating businesses, which can range from hotels and lodges to tour operators and car rental agencies, are then given a sustainability rating on a scale of one to five “green leaves”, with five being the highest level of commitment to sustainable practices.
The initiative provided Costa Rica with international recognition and a strong image as a sustainable tourism destination. In addition to incentivising businesses to adopt eco-friendly measures and helping tourists make informed choices about their travel experiences, the Certification for Sustainable Tourism has provided visibility to Costa Rica’s efforts to the preservation of its natural resources. This has driven the growth of tourism in Costa Rica and contributed to the protection of the country’s rich biodiversity, encouraging local economic development and preserving its cultural heritage.
The Palau Pledge and recent plans to make the country a carbon-neutral destination
Palau successfully introduced a first-of-its-kind mandatory eco-pledge recently, to raise awareness among tourists about the country’s environmental and cultural sensitivity. Introduced in 2017, the Palau Pledge is a unique initiative that requires international visitors to sign a formal commitment to act responsibly and respect the environment and local customs during their stay. The Pledge is stamped directly into tourists’ passports and outlines a set of sustainable practices aimed at minimising negative impacts on the island’s fragile ecosystem and culture. For example, by signing the Palau Pledge, visitors commit to respecting local communities and their customs and refrain from feeding fish and sharks or littering. In addition, tourists pledge to support local businesses in the communities they visit. The initiative has helped raise awareness about sustainable tourism practices and empowered local communities to hold tourists accountable for their actions.
The Pledge is only one component of a set of measures taken by Palau to transform the country into a sustainable tourism destination. In 2020, for example, the Palau Bureau of Tourism initiated a project aimed at bolstering local food production in the tourism sector and establishing a carbon management platform for visitors, which will enable them to offset the emissions of their travel and activities. The contributions gathered from offsetting are to be allocated to blue carbon projects, including mangrove restoration and sustainable production activities that help curtail CO2 emissions. This innovative programme is projected to generate more than USD 1 million annually for carbon reduction endeavours.
Source: Instituto Costaricense de Turism (2023[11]), Sustainability, https://www.ict.go.cr/en/sustainability/cst.html; Palau Bureau of Tourism, 2023[163]) (2023[12]), Palau Pledge, https://palaupledge.com/; Palau Government (2020[13]), “Project to Make Palau a Carbon Neutral Destination Launched by Palau Bureau of Tourism, Sustainable Travel International, and Slow Food”, https://www.palaugov.pw/project-to-make-palau-a-carbon-neutral-destination-launched-by-palau-bureau-of-tourism-sustainable-travel-international-and-slow-food/.
As part of efforts to increase the economic contribution of its tourism industry, Samoa could benefit from enhancing its linkages to the labour market. A comparison with its peers in the Pacific suggests that there may be scope to increase tourism’s contribution to labour market outcomes. Strengthening labour market linkages can lead to increased job creation, better income opportunities for local communities and greater overall resilience of the tourism industry. Investing in education, training and skills development programmes tailored for the tourism sector can ensure that the local workforce is equipped with the knowledge and expertise necessary to deliver high-quality services to tourists. Over time, this approach can allow for a shift from a volume-driven growth of the tourism industry to one based on quality and value, which can also make the industry and its workers more adaptable and better prepared to handle challenges, such as changing market demands and external shocks.
Drawing lessons from recent crises, Samoa could implement mechanisms to augment the resilience of its tourism industry. Addressing structural weaknesses, such as inadequate infrastructure, limited human resources and low levels of digitalisation, is vital to ensure the sector’s long-term viability and adaptability in the face of global challenges. Given the high cost of investments needed to tackle these issues, one option could be for such initiatives to be financed by the proceeds of the tourism levy currently being considered by the government of Samoa. To ensure broad buy-in from tourism sector stakeholders, tourism levies require careful planning and transparency on the use of their proceeds, as well as effective communication on how the latter will benefit the sector through increased resilience.
The COVID-19 pandemic has demonstrated that despite investments in resilience, certain events can still have a profound impact on Samoa’s tourism industry. In anticipation of scenarios where disruptions to the industry are unavoidable, it is essential to prioritise resilience through stop-gap measures designed to minimise socioeconomic fallout and facilitate the sector’s rapid recovery. By making plans for and employing strategies such as stimulus packages for businesses and social protection mechanisms, Samoa can mitigate the adverse effects of unforeseen events on the tourism industry. In a country like Samoa, it is also crucial to consider the unique needs of the informal sector, which may not be adequately addressed by conventional protective measures. Developing tailored approaches for this sector will strengthen the industry’s resilience and ensure a more comprehensive recovery in the face of future challenges.
Sustainable fisheries
To enhance the fisheries sector’s contribution to economic growth and reduce its exposure to external shocks, Samoa could identify and address supply chain constraints limiting value and hindering exports. For example, Samoa could increase the benefits derived from its tuna industry by investing in value-added fish products and by upgrading local capacity to meet quality standards required by the major export markets, such as Australia, New Zealand, the United States and the European Union. Research on how Indonesian fisheries can better cater to the European Union tuna market found the need to strengthen practices (e.g., better documentation) that increase the traceability of sustainably fished products (Firbiani, 2018[14]). Measures to raise awareness among fishers and suppliers, and to equip them with the ability to apply and verify strict environmental and sustainability standards, as in the example of Pacific Island Tuna (Box 1.6), a joint initiative between the Republic of the Marshall Islands and the Nature Conservancy, can help to ensure greater access to global export markets.
Pacific Island Tuna is a joint venture company between the Nature Conservancy and the Republic of Marshall Islands. Walmart, the world’s largest retailer, has chosen Pacific Island Tuna to supply it with Marine Stewardship Council-certified canned skipjack tuna for its in-house brand, Great Value.
The business model positions Pacific Islanders to participate equitably in global tuna supply chains and intends to direct 100% of long-term net profits back to Pacific Island governments and communities. At least 40% of the company’s net income distributions directly support community-based conservation and climate resilience projects, including the development and management of Marine Protected Areas and coral reef restoration. The other 60% of profits will be returned to Pacific Island governments.
The model, developed in collaboration with Bain & Company, includes strict sourcing standards that match robust social and environmental sustainability commitments with best-in-class verification. A prohibition of the use of fish aggregating devices reduces the bycatch of juvenile tunas and at-risk species like sharks and turtles. Meanwhile, dockside offloading – Pacific Island Tuna’s requirement that all fish pass through a port in the Pacific to verify catch volumes – eliminates the possibility of illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing and provides workers on fishing vessels the added safety measure of being able to leave the vessel if necessary. These standards are validated through Pacific Island Tuna’s commitment to 100% on-the-water transparency through human observers and Electronic Monitoring coverage on all fishing vessels. By following best-in-class transparency practices, Pacific Island Tuna further demonstrates its commitment to upholding the highest environmental and labour standards.
Source: Businesswire (2021[15]), “Global Tuna Supply Chain Disrupted: New, Sustainably-Sourced Product to Line Shelves of World’s Biggest Retail Chain”, https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20211006005271/en/Global-Tuna-Supply-Chain-Disrupted-New-Sustainably-Sourced-Product-to-Line-Shelves-of-World%E2%80%99s-Biggest-Retail-Chain.
In addition, efforts to develop the domestic market through an import substitution strategy could provide a local source of fish demand, allowing the fisheries sector to circumvent constraints capping its export potential, while promoting goals of food security. This can be done through public procurement programmes, using the government’s purchasing power to provide regular demand by supplying canteens in local schools, hospitals and other public institutions. Demand for local fish products can also benefit from measures to incentivise and enable the use of rejected fish or bycatch to produce fish meal and oil for aquaculture, livestock husbandry and as fertiliser for vegetable farming. Education on the nutritional benefits of fish products in the context of public health awareness programmes can also help to boost local demand (MRAG Asia Pacific, 2022[16]).
Efforts to develop the fisheries sector must be accompanied by a proportionate investment in fisheries management and assessment of fish stocks. The long-term economic health of the fisheries sector is tied to the long-term sustainability of fish stocks, which makes fisheries management indispensable. OECD evidence shows that the impact of support to fisheries on fish stock health is predicated on the type of fisheries support and fisheries management. Without adequate fisheries management, policies that minimise fixed costs (e.g. the cost of vessels) have been shown to yield a high risk of encouraging unsustainable fishing (OECD, 2022[17]). Lacking a robust management framework, any growth in the fisheries sector could also potentially be short-lived and generate more issues than it resolves. It is thus vital to combine measures to grow the fisheries sector with efforts to ensure robust fish stock assessment and effective fisheries management.
Given their high exposure to natural disasters and climate change, fishing communities would benefit from measures to enhance climate resilience and protection against natural disasters. This can include community projects to protect coastlines from erosion through revetments and groynes, as well as maintenance and construction of seawalls. Measures to include climate resilience can also include insurance protection for fishing communities hit by natural disasters (Box 1.7).
The Caribbean Ocean and Aquaculture Sustainability Facility, led by the World Bank and the Caribbean Catastrophe Risk Insurance Facility Segregated Portfolio Company, aims to improve fishermen’s access to disaster risk financing. Concretely, the facility provides parametric insurance coverage to vulnerable fishing communities for losses caused by “bad weather”, defined as high waves and occurrence of heavy rainfall.
While the facility’s policies are directly purchased by governments, the product incorporates a livelihood protection component (akin to microinsurance) and a tropical cyclone component (sovereign insurance). In particular, the Caribbean Ocean and Aquaculture Sustainability Facility product provides coverage for losses on fisherfolk and direct damages caused by tropical cyclones (wind and storm surge) to fishing vessels, fishing equipment and fishing infrastructure.
Source: CCRIF (2023[18]), Caribbean Ocean and Aquaculture Sustainability Facility, https://www.ccrif.org/projects/coast/caribbean-ocean-and-aquaculture-sustainability-facility.
Maritime transport
Decarbonisation of maritime transport would generate economic benefits for Samoa. Given its reliance on foreign fuel imports and the considerable fossil fuel use by the maritime transport sector, efforts to decarbonise the sector would yield tangible gains throughout the economy.
In concrete terms, this implies decarbonising Samoa’s current fleet of vessels while heeding emissions concerns in procuring new vessels. Efforts to reduce emissions would be germane to the Samoa Shipping Corporation, whose fleet of seven ferries services domestic islands, as well as American Samoa and Tokelau. Existing literature points to a range of technological (e.g., lighter materials, slender design, less friction, waste heat recovery), operational (e.g., lower speeds, ship size, ship-port interface), and alternative fuel-related (e.g., sustainable biofuels, hydrogen, ammonia, electric ships, wind assistance) measures that can mitigate or eliminate maritime transport-related emissions (ITF, 2018[19]). Steps to increase the energy and operational efficiency of maritime transport can drive emission reductions in the short term. A more ambitious transition to alternative fuels is critical for longer-term decarbonisation (see Teeter and Cleary (2014[20]) for the case for sail-solar shipping in SIDS). Samoa does not yet own a cargo ship, but momentum is building to purchase one to offset heightened freight costs (Samoa Global News, 2023[21]), which offers an opportunity to include decarbonisation considerations from the outset. Optimising ship design and ship size would help increase the net energy efficiency of a potential cargo ship. The continuation and expansion of existing forms of technical and financial assistance (e.g. the joint Japan-United Nations Development Programme project to explore low-carbon propulsion systems for Samoa’s transport sector) is indispensable for a low-carbon transformation of its maritime transport sector. South-south co-operation could also help supply replicable solutions for Samoa, especially since maritime transport is a central feature of many coastal economies, and many island nations have historically relied on low or no-carbon modalities for maritime travel.
Samoa can sustainably and strategically develop onshore activities to reap additional benefits from international maritime traffic. Interviews conducted with Samoan officials for this report indicated that the consolidation of shipping lines during the pandemic introduced an opportunity for Samoa to function more prominently as a shipping hub. Capacity constraints at the Apia Port may cap the growth potential of maritime traffic, but strategically expanding onshore services (e.g. refuelling, restocking, crew accommodation, etc.) could bring in additional revenue. A holistic approach to managing port services is necessary, however, to eschew pursuing economic gains at the expense of environmental or social damage. This entails aligning port operations with broader decarbonisation (e.g., by optimising port logistics, reducing the emissions of port-based industries) and ocean restoration and conservation efforts. The economic gains of port-based activities could be channelled into social development, by creating decent local jobs, developing skills and capacity, and promoting inclusion of marginalised groups. As elaborated in Box 1.8, the Blue Ports initiative provides a framework and capacity support for such an integrated approach.
Led by the Food and Agriculture Organization and supported by Spain, the Blue Ports initiative aims to harness “blue ports” to drive sustainable development. With an initial focus on fishing ports, and possible expansion to other types of ports, the initiative aims to promote both environmental and socio-economic sustainability. It espouses the following benefits of a “blue port”:
Reinforced strategic planning that is inclusive, competitive, green and efficient
Stronger partnerships with academia, governments, the private sector and civil society
Investments guided by stakeholder needs and sustainability concerns
Fostering innovation by attracting investors and entrepreneurs
Improved commercial operations of the port in terms of volume and earnings
The Blue Ports initiative aims to help countries realise these benefits through capacity building and by providing a platform for knowledge exchange. Its outputs include a guidance on becoming a “blue port”, workshops and seminars, knowledge management tools such as data platforms, and bespoke technical assistance activities to support port design and implementation strategies.
Source: Sanchez (2022[22]), The Blue Ports initiative to encourage positive city–port relationships, https://www.aivp.org/en/newsroom/the-blue-ports-initiative-to-encourage-positive-city-port-relationships/; Government of Spain (2022[23]), “Spain offers FAO its support for the creation of the Blue Ports Global Network office and its location in the Port of Vigo”, https://www.puertos.es/es-es/Paginas/Noticias/puertosazules2022.aspx.
To weather future shocks, buttressing the resilience of Samoa’s maritime transport sector is essential. A combination of higher exposure and lower adaptive capacity makes Samoa extremely vulnerable to climate change. Simultaneously, maritime transport functions as the economic lifeline of the country, and as the source of essential goods and services. Climate-proofing maritime transport, notably seaports, is an urgent undertaking. The forthcoming transport sector plan is a chance to elaborate a long-term climate change adaptation plan, rooted in a systematic use of risk assessments and cost-benefit analysis of adaptation projects. The high cost of adapting transport to climate change also means that continued support from partners (e.g. the Asian Development Bank’s investments in upgrading the Apia Port) is pivotal. Structural solutions that limit disruptions of connectivity can also be pursued. This would include fortifying intraregional trading partnerships and co-ordinating with other Pacific countries to safeguard connectivity in times of crisis, as well as pursuing process improvements in trade and shipping to allow for continuity in the face of disruptions (UNCTAD, 2021[24]).
Emerging sectors
The ocean economy provides opportunities for Samoa to harness innovation and diversify its economy. By focusing on emerging sectors, such as ocean-based renewable energy, marine biotechnology and aquaculture, Samoa can create new job opportunities, promote value-added activities and offer alternatives to seasonal migration. These sectors also provide avenues for enhancing the skill sets of the local workforce through capacity building.
Attracting investment in these emerging sectors, however, will mean addressing existing barriers that could impede their growth. This includes the need to adequately adapt the regulatory environment, creating a more conducive atmosphere for investment to increase the attractiveness of these sectors, facilitating access to finance and promoting public-private partnerships.
One promising avenue for Samoa’s ocean economy is the development of ocean-based renewable energy. This includes offshore wind, which currently dominates global renewable electricity generation, but also other emerging renewable sources, such as waves, tides, floating solar and algae (for biofuel). Recent research suggests that ocean-based renewable energy can be especially important for small island countries with large ocean resources and limited space for other forms of renewable energy (Jolliffe, Jolly and Stevens, 2021[9]). By harnessing some of these ocean-based renewable sources, Samoa can move towards energy independence. This transition, in line with the country’s decarbonisation strategy and its target to achieve 70% renewable energy by 2031, would also reduce its reliance on imported fossil fuels and mitigate its exposure to external inflation. In addition, ocean-based renewable energy holds promise to generate localised clean energy in support of ocean-economy activities such as tourism, port services, fish processing and aquaculture (Jolliffe, Jolly and Stevens, 2021[9]). Samoa’s experience with more mature renewable energy, like solar photovoltaic, can contribute to its readiness to adopt ocean energy technologies. Recent research suggests that an existing regulatory framework supporting the integration of clean energy technologies may streamline the deployment of emerging technologies such as wave, tidal or floating solar photovoltaic (OES, 2020[25]). In addition, Samoa’s ongoing marine spatial planning process could help prevent conflicts and delays if it considers the country’s potential for ocean energy deployment.
Marine biotechnology presents another opportunity for economic diversification and upskilling. Continued research and development in marine biotechnology could unlock opportunities for economic diversification and growth, for example through the development of innovative products like pharmaceuticals and cosmetics derived from marine organisms. Avoiding irreversible ecosystem damage is, nonetheless, paramount. Collaborative efforts between the Scientific Research Organisation of Samoa and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, but also with regional peers and existing knowledge networks, will be essential to pool resources, share scientific knowledge and develop the expertise needed to unlock the full potential of marine biotechnology research.
Lastly, the potential of aquaculture for both domestic consumption and export warrants further exploration. Aquaculture is still a young industry in Samoa and represents only a minor share of the country’s fisheries sector. To assess the feasibility of scaling up this activity, a comprehensive analysis of suitable species, required capital inputs, market demands and environmental considerations would be a necessary first step. Aquaculture production that requires the conversion of high-value coastal ecosystems like mangroves may not be appropriate for Samoa, especially given the emphasis in the SOS on coastal ecosystem protection. Likewise, the viability of intensive production systems would be limited in Samoa due to the large requisite capital and energy inputs and social costs for local communities (OECD, 2020[26]).
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