Chapter 5. International co-operation and commitments

This chapter reviews Peru’s efforts to fulfill its international commitments to protect the environment. It covers climate change mitigation, with Lima hosting COP20, and biodiversity protection, with Peru being a megadiverse country. It also covers the UN Convention to Combat Desertification and international conventions for the protection of the marine environment. The chapter reviews free trade agreements that address environmental matters, as well as regional and bilateral co-operation. Finally, it discusses measures to make the best use of official development assistance.

  

Key findings and recommendations

The National Environmental Policy of 2009 reflects in its wording both the Rio Declaration on the Environment and Development and the Millennium Development Goals, as well as the international conventions and treaties to which Peru is a party. The policy mentions the ratification of international treaties at the multilateral, regional and bilateral levels, and cites the free trade treaties as a strategy for integration.

As a result of the international commitments adopted at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Sustainable Development (from Stockholm, 1972, to Rio de Janeiro, 2012), Peru has promoted the incorporation of environmental management instruments that will facilitate their fulfilment. In light of Programme 21, a significant number of municipalities strengthened their institutions by developing local environmental management capacities for the purpose of adopting action plans for local sustainable development. The results were uneven, due to lack of a strategy for promoting this agenda. In response, a Strategy for Strengthening Decentralized Environmental Performance was developed. In 2013, Peru reported auspicious progress toward achieving the Millennium Development Goals.

Peru has ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change as well as the Kyoto Protocol. It presented its first Communication on Climate Change in 2001, its second in 2010, and is currently working on its third report. Its greenhouse gas emissions represent slightly more than 0.3% of the world total, with a heavy component attributable to land-use change and deforestation, and growth coupled with the evolution of the economy. Over the last decade there has been systematic progress in the normative and institutional framework relating to climate change. Peru has also developed regional strategies on climate change. It is among the countries that comprise the Cartagena Dialogue for Progressive Action (Diálogo de Cartagena para la Acción Progresiva), a discussion forum that is seeking areas of international convergence toward a solution to climate change. It is also a member of the Independent Alliance of Latin America and the Caribbean (AILAC), a group of seven countries dedicated to concrete progress under the Convention. At the fourteenth session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP14), Peru undertook to preserve 54 000 000 hectares of forest as a contribution to mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. At the fifteenth session of the Conference of the Parties (COP15), it pledged to reduce to zero the net deforestation rate in its tropical forests by the year 2020. On the basis of these commitments, it has developed the National Programme of Forest Conservation for Mitigating Climate Change, which in 2014 covered a total of 542 000 hectares of protected forest land. After hosting the twentieth session of the Conference of the Parties (COP20) in 2014, Peru presented its intended nationally determined contributions (INDC) at the twenty-first session (COP21), in which it undertook to reduce its emissions by 30% from the base scenario. The forestry sector will account for 60% of the expected reduction.

Peru is recognised as one of the world’s 17 megadiverse countries. In 1993 it ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity; it has been a signatory to the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety since 2004; and in 2014 it became party to the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from Their Utilisation. In 2014 it presented the National Strategy for Biological Diversity and its Action Plan, both of which are consistent with the Aichi targets. Although that strategy has achieved a degree of synergy with the National Strategy on Climate Change, in general terms national policies in the energy, agriculture, water, fisheries and other areas bear no direct relationship to the targets, with the exception of the National Environment Policy. In 2015, the Organization of Latin American and Caribbean Supreme Audit Institutions produced a positive assessment of progress in compliance with the agreement established by AICHI Target 11, although mobilising the required financial, human and institutional resources remained a challenge. In 1991 Peru ratified the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, also known as the Ramsar Convention, and at the beginning of 2015 it adopted a National Wetlands Strategy to promote the conservation and sustainable use of such ecosystems.

In 1995 Peru ratified the Convention to Combat Desertification: the proportion of its surface area in dry lands (around 40%) is in fact one of the highest in South America. In its fourth National Communication, Peru reports that a third of its surface area was in some state of desertification. The main instances of desertification are to be found along the Costa Árida (“Arid Coast”), in the semi-arid Sierra and in Amazonia. An anti-desertification strategy 2008-2018 has been adopted, covering various initiatives by governments, research institutions and NGOs at the national, regional and local levels. It is estimated that USD 225 million has been committed in 46 programmes and projects.

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) was ratified in 1975. The CITES Secretariat has ranked Peru in category 1, meaning that its legislation meets the requirements for application of the Convention and the country has sufficient administrative, scientific and supervisory authorities to control trade in species covered by the Convention. Peru has two forest species of great commercial interest, mahogany and cedar. In the 1980s and 1990s the mahogany trade enjoyed a great boom, with the consequent increase in illegal logging as a result of which the species was listed in CITES Appendix II in 2002. The restriction on marketing this wood came into force in November 2003. It must be noted, however, that Peru is one of the main exporters of biotrade products, and product controls and traceability must therefore be maintained.

Peru is also party to a series of international conventions for the protection and conservation of the marine environment. These include the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (1973); the Action Plan for the Protection of the Marine Environment and Coastal Area of the Southeast Pacific; the Protocol for the Protection of the Southeast Pacific against Pollution from Land- Based Sources; the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (1974), the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and Coastal Area of the Southeast Pacific; the Supplementary Protocol to the Agreement on Regional Cooperation for Combating Pollution of the Southeast Pacific from Hydrocarbons and Other Harmful Substances; the Protocol for the Conservation and Management of Protected Marine and Coastal Areas of the Southeast Pacific; the Protocol on the programme for the regional study on the El Niño phenomenon in the Southeast Pacific; the International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Cooperation; and the 1992 Protocol amending the International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage. It is also a party to the Latin American Agreement on Port State Control of Vessels, signed in 1992 with a view to maintaining an effective inspection system to guarantee that foreign vessels visiting a country`s ports meet the standards established in the international conventions. The objective is that the respective maritime authorities will inspect at least 20% of all foreign vessels entering their ports each year. According to figures for 2013, Peru inspected 27% of the vessels entering its ports, thereby complying with the objective of this agreement.

In 2009 the FAO approved the Agreement on Port State Measures to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing. While Peru has signed that agreement, it has not yet ratified it. Peru has also had legislation since 1996 prohibiting the catching of dolphins and small cetaceans. Given the existence of a shark fishery, in 2014 Peru adopted the National Action Plan for the Conservation and Management of Sharks, Rays and Related Species, known as PAN Tiburón Perú. Peru is also a party to the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling and the Agreement on the International Programme for the Conservation of Dolphins. It is a member of the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission, the Permanent Commission for the South Pacific, the Latin American Organization for Fisheries Development, and the Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization, through which it has adopted initiatives to protect, conserve and manage its resources. In addition to the foregoing, Peru ratified the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals in 1997 and the Inter- American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles in 1999. In its last report, dated 2014, it described a series of activities aimed at conservation of the species. Notwithstanding those efforts, a study conducted in three Peruvian ports estimated that some 5 900 turtles were being taken as by-catch each year.

Peru has been a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) since 1995, and its commitment to the multilateral system is reflected in the presentation of various proposals in such areas as special and differentiated treatment, agriculture, fisheries subsidies, market access, biodiversity, traditional knowledge, genetic resources, trade facilitation, and environmental goods and services. Peru has an open and diversified economy, and it has pursued international trade as a component of its growth.

Few imports and exports are subject to restrictions or bans, and these are imposed only for reasons of health and safety, to protect the environment, and to comply with international commitments given by the country. Peru has 17 trade agreements in force. At the regional level, it is a founding member of the Andean Community and the Pacific Alliance, and it has a free trade agreement with the Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR). In addition, it has signed trade agreements with the European Free Trade Association and the European Union, as well as with the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, Canada, Chile, China, Costa Rica, Japan, Republic of Korea, Mexico, Panama, Singapore, Thailand and the United States. It has concluded two trade agreements (not yet in effect) with Guatemala and Honduras, and is negotiating others with El Salvador and the Trans-Pacific Partnership. The trade agreements that address environmental matters are those signed with the United States, Canada, Republic of Korea and the European Union, although their provisions vary in depth and scope. In the context of these trade agreements, Peru has developed co-operation with the United States on forestry, for example, and with Canada on climate change mitigation in the housing sector. A new project is now being developed on conservation of biodiversity.

When it comes to bilateral and regional co-operation, Peru is an active member of the Forum of Ministers of Environment of Latin America and the Caribbean. It is also a party to the Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization (ACTO), comprising the Plurinational State of Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Suriname and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela. ACTO has launched a project for monitoring deforestation, logging and land-use change in the Pan-Amazonian forest, the purpose of which is to ensure participatory monitoring of forest cover in Amazonia and to strengthen the existing regional co-ordination mechanisms for forest management. In addition, Peru has a series of bilateral co-operation agreements with countries of the region, including Argentina, Brazil, the Plurinational State of Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, Honduras, Mexico and Panama. With those countries it has been developing an environmental agenda dealing with, among other matters, illegal logging and cross-border pollution, especially from the artisanal gold mining industry.

Peru is promoting the Andean Strategy for Integrated Water Resource Management, being developed under the auspices of the Andean Community. In the Pacific Alliance, Peru is working with Colombia, Chile and Mexico to develop a research network of climate change scientists, who have already produced and published a report on opportunities for collaboration in research on climate change in the countries of the Pacific Alliance (Oportunidades de Colaboración en Investigación sobre Cambio Climático en los países de la Alianza del Pacífico).

According to OECD data, in 2013 Peru received official development assistance (ODA) in a gross amount of USD 532.1 million, and a net amount of USD 367 million. The OECD also reports that annual development co-operation between 2005 and 2009 averaged USD 425 million. Since its adherence in 2006 to the Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness, Peru has been working to make more effective use of the resources it receives in the form of ODA. During 2011, Peru conducted an assessment of achievements in terms of co-operation effectiveness. According to this evaluation, there had been progress with respect to aid predictability and co-ordination of local capacity building, but further work was needed on making the national development strategy operational. International co-operation has played a fundamental role in a number of environmental projects, accounting for around 3% of public spending on the environment in Peru. The country has been an active participant in South-South co-operation, primarily within the region, and this has included environmental activities.

Recommendations

  • Continue strengthening synergies between the strategies for climate change, biodiversity and desertification; bolster co-ordinated collaborative efforts in those areas to continue making progress with meeting international commitments.

  • As a megadiverse country, continue efforts to protect underrepresented land ecosystems and to increase the marine areas under protection in order to progress towards meeting Aichi Biodiversity Target No. 11. Ensure that all Peru’s marine ecosystems are duly represented, bearing in mind the proposal for Ecologically or Biologically Significant Marine Areas (EBSA) in the Convention on Biological Diversity. For continental ecosystems, consider increasing the representation of aquatic habitats in the protected natural areas system.

  • Continue strengthening capacities for controlling the illegal trade in endangered species under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).

  • Strengthen the management of waste products, chemicals and hazardous substances in accordance with international treaties, in particular the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, the Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade and the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal. Take actions for the implementation of the recently ratified Minamata Convention on Mercury, in particular those aimed at the environmentally sound storage and management of mercury wastes in mining and the elimination of the use of mercury and trading in it.

  • Continue the efforts to meet Peru’s international environmental commitments in order to reflect the country’s growing role in the economy of Latin America and its potential for OECD membership. Continue to make progress with the development of effective and efficient international co-operation that is geared towards the country’s environmental needs; seek out synergies between activities and, to the extent that is possible, assess ways to ensure that the achievements obtained through co-operation are sustainable over time, with their own capacities and resources.

  • Conduct environmental assessments of trade and investment agreements to identify their adverse repercussions. Continue with the international co-operation activities associated with commercial treaties, in particular those intended to prevent environmental harm caused by the extractive sector’s production of export goods. Promote compliance with the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises and with the OECD Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Supply Chains of Minerals from Conflict-Affected and High-Risk Areas.

1. Environmental policy objectives

The National Environmental Policy, formulated in 2009, took account of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development and the Millennium Development Goals, along with the international agreements and treaties to which Peru is a party. The fundamentals of this policy mention the ratification of multilateral, regional and bilateral treaties, and identify free-trade agreements as an integration strategy. One of the objectives of this policy is to “achieve eco-efficient and competitive development of the public and private sectors, while promoting national and international economic and environmental potentials.” The policy also establishes a specific pillar related to international commitments on the environment and the opportunities these offer.

2. Sustainable development and multilateral agreements

Peru has participated actively in the international debates on sustainable development, and it was represented at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm, 1972), the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro, 1992), the World Summit on Sustainable Development (Johannesburg, 2002) and the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio de Janeiro, 2012).

Peru has adopted environmental management tools to facilitate compliance with the international commitments signed at those conferences. Among other things, in connection with Agenda 21 (Programme of Action for Sustainable Development), adopted in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, many municipalities strengthened their environmental management capacity to put plans of action for local sustainable development in place. Although progress has been made in applying Agenda 21, it has been uneven, because there is no strategy for promoting it (Peru, Government of, 2012). Accordingly, a strategy for strengthening decentralised environmental performance was developed, which aims, among other things, to promote better environmental performance by the municipalities, through a recognition awarded by the Ministry of the Environment (MINAM) (Peru, Government of, 2014c).

In 2013, Peru submitted a progress report on its fulfilment of the Millennium Development Goals, which stated that it had reduced the percentage of the population that use solid fuels, although the rate itself remained high, while carbon dioxide emissions had increased. The land area with forest cover had shrunk, as a result of land-use change; and considerable progress had been made towards the target of halving the percentage of the population without sustainable access to drinking water and basic sanitation services (Peru, Government of, 2013b).

Peru has undertaken to apply the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which includes 17 development goals, aimed at bringing an end to poverty, combating inequality and injustice, and mitigating the effects of climate change. In 2014, two national public consultations were held to discuss the means for implementing the new Sustainable Development Goals of the United Nations by 2030, as part of the post-2015 Development Agenda.

2.1. Climate change

Having ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1993, Peru submitted its first national communication on the subject in 2001, reporting on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions since the base year of 1994. At that time, the main source of carbon dioxide emissions was the non-energy sector, owing to deforestation, while in the energy sector, urban transport was the largest source (Peru, Government of, 2001). In 2010, Peru presented its second national communication, reporting CO2 equivalent emissions in excess of 120 000 Gigagrams (Gg), representing just over 0.3% of the global total. It also reported a 21% increase in emissions relative to those of 1994, which is probably directly related to the expansion of national economic activity in that period (Government of Peru, 2010). It has recently submitted its third national communication.

The second communication on climate change highlights mitigation and adaptation activities, but does not mention an exhaustive analysis being made of its impact at the national and subnational levels.

Peru is not obliged to reduce GHG emissions. Nonetheless, the country has adopted measures to meet the threat of climate change. In 2003 it approved the National Strategy on Climate Change; and it then adopted the National Environmental Agenda 2005-2007, and Law No. 27345) concerning the promotion of efficient energy use, the National Environmental Policy (2009) and the National Environmental Action Plan (2011). It has also formulated regional climate change strategies, the first of which corresponds to the region of Junín (2007). Fourteen of Peru’s 25 regions had a strategy of this type in September 2014 (Government of Peru, 2015).

Peru is also a party to the Cartagena Dialogue for Progressive Action, which seeks areas of convergence to combat climate change; and it is a party to the Independent Alliance of Latin America and the Caribbean (AILAC), which aims to make concrete progress towards the UNFCCC objectives.

In 2014, Peru hosted the twentieth session of the Conference of the Parties to UNFCCC (COP20), the highlight of which was the approval of the “Lima call for climate action”, which includes the draft negotiating text for COP21. In the same year, it prepared the draft of the new National Strategy on Climate Change, an update of its 2003 predecessor, and this was approved in 2015. The new strategy focuses on two large-scale objectives: (i) increase awareness and adaptation capacity to deal with the adverse effects of climate change and the opportunities this offers; and (ii) conserve carbon reserves and contribute to GHG reduction. Like the second national communication, the new strategy recognises the close interrelationship that exists between climate change and biodiversity, and the latter’s contribution to mitigating GHG emissions and adaptation to the phenomenon (Government of Peru, 2015).

2.2. Mitigation

The second national communication cites a projection that sees emissions growing on a sustained basis in all sectors, although more rapidly in the energy, agriculture and land-use sectors. By 2050, emissions are expected to have tripled in the first two of these sectors and to have increased by 137% in the third (Government of Peru, 2015).

In view of the importance of land-use change, in COP 14 (held in 2008), Peru undertook to conserve 54 million ha of forest as a contribution to global efforts to mitigate GHGs. In COP 15, its commitment was to reduce to zero the net deforestation rate in tropical forests by 2020. These commitments formed the basis for developing the National Forest Conservation Programme for the Mitigation of Climate Change (PNCBMCC). The objective of this programme is to strengthen the capacities of indigenous and rural communities living in and around Peru’s Amazon tropical and dry forests, with a view to their good management and the promotion of sustainable production activities. In 2014, the results achieved by the programme by granting conditional transfers had meant a conservation commitment of 542 000 ha and benefits for 5 038 families (MINAM, 2016).

Peru is a party to the United Nations Collaborative Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries (UN-REDD). The design and implementation of this programme in Peru are the responsibility of PNCBMCC, for which it receives assistance from Japan. As part of this programme, between 2012 and 2013, activities were undertaken to develop capacities among indigenous peoples, with the aim of disseminating the UN-REDD mechanism and enhancing its contribution to the formulation of measures and their application in the country. A total of 400 indigenous people participated in these activities (UN-REDD, 2014). One of Peru’s objectives in this area is to produce a national strategy on forests and climate change, to address deforestation and forest degradation in a co-ordinated manner across all government levels.

Although Peru is not a large emitter in absolute terms, it is adopting mitigation measures. The energy sector has supported the adoption of legal measures encouraging the use of renewable energy sources and energy efficiency. The country has significant renewable resources for power generation, so it would be advisable to continue promoting their use. Transport remains the largest consumer of oil, which is still the country’s major energy source, contributing just under 50% of the total.

Altogether 60 projects have been registered with the Executive Board of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), which should allow for a reduction of over 9 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent. Just 15 of these have been issued mission reduction certificates for a total of 4.5 million tonnes (UNEP DTU Partnership, 2015). In 2012, 185 CDM projects were registered, of which 44 were approved by a designated national authority, which in the case of Peru is the Ministry of the Environment (FONAM, 2012). Progress has also been made in developing initiatives that could be classified as country-appropriate mitigation measures, with international assistance. These include a measure that aims to improve the Lima public transport system, by strengthening the institutions responsible for its management and fleet modernisation, among other things (GIZ, 2014). A preparatory programme is also being implemented to develop a household waste management measure, with assistance from the governments of Nordic countries, (NORDEN, 2015).

In October 2015, Peru presented its intended nationally determined contributions (INDC), in which it undertakes to reduce its emissions by 30% relative to the base situation. Domestic public and private funds will be available for the first 20% of reduction, while the remaining 10 percentage points are conditional on receiving international co-operation and financing. As much as 60% of the proposed reduction corresponds to the forestry sector, specifically the mitigation of deforestation (MINAM, 2015).

2.3. Adaptation

Between 1970 and 2009, Peru was the Latin American country which registered the largest number of fatalities and the second largest number of affected people, owing to 105 natural disasters of which 71% were of a hydro-meteorological type. In this context, the El Niño phenomenon, which produced two severe episodes in 1982-1983 and 1997-1998, caused losses estimated at USD 6.8 billion (IDB, 2011). Some studies suggest that unless appropriate measures are adopted, the negative effects of these events could represent between 1% and 4% of GDP by 2030, and 3% – 20% by 2050. An estimated PEN 1.6 billion were assigned from the annual public budget in 2007-2009 for adaptation to the effects of climate change (IDB, 2011).

Given the country’s vulnerability to climate change, the adoption of adaptation measures is a priority. Peru’s second national communication notes that over 60 projects and activities were executed in this sphere between 1999 and 2009 —concentrated in the regions of Piura, Cusco, Apurímac, Junín, San Martín and Cajamarca (Government of Peru, 2015). In 2007-2008, a pilot project was implemented in Piura and Arequipa, which served as a basis for designing adaptation measures related to water management, the agriculture sector, environmental education and policy-making (Piura and Arequipa, Governments of, 2010).

In 2009 the Climate Change Adaptation Programme (PACC PERU) began execution, involving co-operation between the Ministry of Environment and the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation; and it was executed in the regions of Apurímac and Cusco. In the first phase, information was collected on climate change and its effects, regional and local policies were formulated on the subject, and impact indicators were monitored (MINAM/SDC, 2013). In 2008-2012, an Andean micro-watershed project was executed through the MDG Achievement Fund, which allowed for capacity building in the regional and local governments of Apurímac and Cusco (MDGF, 2012). Another example is the proposal of adaptation measures in the forestry-agricultural, energy and health sectors in the Mantaro River watershed (Government of Peru, 2005).

Many of the activities that are under way are receiving international technical and financial assistance; and progress has been made in strengthening climate change adaptation capabilities. Studies have been conducted on vulnerability and adaptation, and measures have been adopted in some regions. Nonetheless, work remains to be done: in particular, actions need to be intensified in regions where interventions are as yet incipient; wherever possible adopting technologies that promote adaptation; and intersectoral integration needs to be fostered to achieve synergies in the adoption of measures. In the medium term, internal mechanisms need to be created to make it easier to finance the activities.

2.4. Biodiversity

Peru ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity in 1993; and it has been a signatory to the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety since 2004, and of the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization since 2014.

The fifth national report on the application of the Convention on Biological Diversity gives details on the status of all aspects of biodiversity, the threats facing it and the challenges posed for its conservation. In 2014, the National Strategy on Biological Diversity was published along with the corresponding Plan of Action, which sets objectives for 2021, and identifies indicators and activities for achieving them. Both instruments are consistent with the Aichi Targets1 (Government of Peru, 2014a).

Application of the National Strategy on Biological Diversity has made it possible to exploit a number of synergies with the National Strategy on Climate Change, which could be expanded by integrating national strategies on forests and climate change. Nonetheless, apart from the National Environmental Policy, national policies on energy, agriculture and water and fishing resources, among others, are not directly related to the Aichi Targets. The same is true of the national energy plans and strategies, which also do not contain implementation guidelines. Nonetheless, it has been possible to preserve the diversity of some ecosystems through a mechanism of control, supervision and inspection of the exploitation of biodiversity; and measures have been adopted to encourage respect for, and recognition of, their value. Progress has also been made on protecting aquaculture species, in applying a system for the distribution of benefits and access to them, and on the participation of indigenous and local community organisations (Government of Peru, 2014b).

Peru’s protected marine areas include the Paracas National Reserve, the San Fernando National Reserve and the Islands, Islets and Guano Capes National Reserve. The National System of State- Protected Natural Areas (SINANPE) is responsible for managing these protected areas, whether public or private. In 2014, the Organization of Latin American and Caribbean Supreme Audit Institutions, performed an evaluation to determine the degree of fulfilment of Aichi Target 11, in the framework of the Convention on Biological Diversity. That exercise analysed 1 120 protected areas in 12 Latin American countries, of which 77 were in Peru. An evaluation made by the Comptroller General of the Republic found that 50% of the 64 protected areas were subject to a high level of management and implementation, 44% displayed a medium level and 6% were of low-level. In the 13 remaining areas, the respective percentages were 31%, 31% and 38% (OLACEFS, 2015). In fact, Peru displayed the highest level of management and implementation of the protected natural areas of all countries analysed.

In 1991, Peru ratified the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat, also known as the Ramsar Convention. The report presented at the twelfth Conference of the Parties shows that Peru has 13 wetlands covering an area of nearly 8 million ha.

In early 2015, the country adopted the National Wetlands Strategy, which aims to promote the conservation and sustainable use of these ecosystems, based on four strategic pillars, to: (i) reduce their vulnerability; (ii) strengthen management capacity; (iii) achieve participatory management; and (iv) foster application of the traditional knowledge and techniques of originating peoples in managing these ecosystems.

Wetland management is not a simple task. The most problematic aspects are surveillance and monitoring, owing to the lack of information. Accordingly, the authorities suggest an initial step would be to prepare a national wetlands inventory, for which financial, institutional and human resources are needed (MINAM, 2014b).

The Programme on Man and the Biosphere of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) recognises four biosphere reserves in Peru. These are the Huascarán Biosphere Reserve, which contains Cordillera Blanca, the highest in the world in tropical zones; and the Manu National Park spanning the departments of Cusco and Madre de Dios, which conserves stretches of tropical forest, both of which are declared World Heritage Sites. In addition, there is the North-East Biosphere Reserve, which protects the dry equatorial forest of the North of Peru, and the Oxapampa-Asháninka-Yanesha Biosphere Reserve, which is a biological corridor in the country’s central rainforest (selva) zone (SERNANP, 2014).

2.5. Bio-trade

The National Programme to Promote Bio-Trade, in which public and private entities participate, began execution in 2003. It is chaired by the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Tourism (MINCETUR), the Commission for the Promotion of Peruvian Exports and Tourism (PROMPERU) and the Institute for Research in the Peruvian Amazon (IIAP). Peru’s bio-trade exports were estimated at USD 111 million in 2007 and USD 114 million in 2008 (UNCTAD, 2012). In 2010 these figures exceeded USD 300 million, making Peru one of the largest exporters of this type of product.

The Perúbiodiverso project, implemented by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation and the German Agency for International Cooperation financed the holding of the “Perú Natura” fair, which, since 2006, has been the main platform for promoting bio-trade. The fair attracts participation from exporters, marketers, agents, distributors, importers and processors from all over the world.

The Commission for the Promotion of Peruvian Exports and Tourism operates a mechanism to support exports of bio-trade products. In 2012, the Bio-trade Research and Innovation Agenda was adopted, with backing from the National Council for Science, Technology and Technological Innovation (CONCYTEC), the Ministry of the Environment, the Peruvian Institute of Natural Products (IPPN), and the Perúbiodiverso project. In addition, MINAM published the Bio-trade Manual in 2014, to disseminate bio-trade principles and criteria, and promote the application of good practices in this sphere.

Peru participates in the Andean Bio-trade Programme, which has representation from the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), the Development Bank of Latin America (CAF) and the Andean Community General Secretariat. The objectives of this programme are to provide support to national bio-trade programmes in Andean countries, foster the creation of markets for their products, develop capacities and accumulate financial resources for entities that engage in bio-trade in the region. Among other activities, a programme is being implemented in Peru to facilitate exports of Andean and organic agricultural products with nutraceutical value,2 and to promote experience-based ecotourism in the province of La Unión, located in the north of the Department of Arequipa, where the Cañón de Cotahuasi is situated (CAN-CAF-UNCTAD, 2005).

2.6. Desertification

The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in Those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, particularly in Africa (UNCCD) was ratified in 1995 by Peru, which has one of the largest areas of dry lands in South America, after Argentina and Brazil. These lands encompass 516 000 km2, representing roughly 40% of national territory.

Peru’s fourth national communication presented to UNCCD reported that one third of Peru’s land area was affected to some extent by desertification, whether as an outright desert zone (3%) or as an area undergoing desertification (23%). This process is occurring most intensively along the arid coast, in the semiarid highland (sierra) area and in the Amazon zone, albeit for different reasons. On the coast, the main causal factor of this phenomenon is soil salinisation; in the highlands it is the erosion caused by precipitation and wind, and in the Amazon area it is hydric erosion caused by constant rainfall (Government of Peru, 2011).

Peru’s 2008-2018 Strategy to Combat Desertification and Drought encompasses state, regional and local initiatives by government entities, research institutions and non-governmental organisations. An estimated USD 225 million has been allocated to the strategy’s 46 programmes and projects.

2.7. Endangered species

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) was ratified by Peru in 1975. The CITES Secretariat has placed Peru in category 1, after analysing its legislation, which means that it fulfils the requirements imposed by the convention (CITES, 2015).

Peru has administrative, scientific, and inspection institutions that control the species trade pursuant to the provisions of the Convention. Its 2011-2012 biennial report indicated that 1 016 permits had been granted to export endangered species. In 2011, major confiscations led to the recovery of 1 301 specimens of fauna and 131 flower specimens, and in 2012, 1 257 specimens were seized (Government of Peru, 2013a).

In 2013, the sixteenth Conference of the Parties analyse the trends of trade in the species listed in appendix II of the Convention. This found that Peru was the world’s second largest exporter of mammal skins (840 219 units), after Argentina. It is also the world’s third largest wood exporter (66 173 m³), after Cameroon and Congo (CITES, 2012).

Peru bans commercial hunting, extraction and export of certain species of wild fauna, including sea lions, except for research purposes or for exhibition in animal parks and zoos, for which prior authorisation is required from the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation. This prohibition is also applicable to live species of vicuña, chinchilla and guanaco. Exceptions are specimens unsuitable for breeding destined for scientific and cultural dissemination purposes, and those that originate from management or breeding areas authorised by the Ministry. There is also an export ban on llamas, alpacas, vicuñas and guanacos and their hybrids; and on caoba and cedar, camu camu, cats’ claw herb, botanical seeds and maca root byproducts (MINCETUR, 2009).

Peru has two forest species of high commercial value: caoba and cedar. Exports of caoba began in the mid-twentieth century, and in the 1980s and 1990s its trade surged, leading to an increase in illegal tree felling. As a result, in 2002, the species was included in appendix II of CITES, which means that it is threatened, and corrective measures must be adopted to prevent it becoming extinct. In November 2003, a restriction was imposed on the sale of this wood, and its exportation requires a declaration on the status of the crops of the species issued by the Faculty of Forestry Sciences of Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina, which is the scientific authority for wood flora in Peru (UNALM, 2007). In 2010, a decree was issued to strengthen articulation mechanisms between the authorities to determine and apply the national export quota. The quota indicates the maximum number of trees that can be felled per year and the management areas from which they originate. Each unit must be checked before and after felling, which is the responsibility of the National Forest and Wildlife Service. In 2015, a quota of 109 trees was established, with a volume amounting to 1 152 m3.

3. Trade and the environment

Peru has been a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) since 1995; and its adherence to the multilateral system is reflected in its constant and active participation in this organisation and in the Doha Development Round negotiations. It has also sponsored several proposals, both individually and with other WTO member countries. These cover issues including special and differential treatment, agriculture, fishing subsidies, market access, biodiversity, traditional knowledge, genetic resources, trade facilitation, environmental goods and services, and services (WTO, 2013).

Peru currently has 17 regional and bilateral trade agreements in force. Regionally, it is a founding member of the Andean Community and the Pacific Alliance, and it is a signatory to a free-trade agreement with the Southern Common Market (MERCOSUR). It has also signed trade agreements with the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) and the European Union, and with the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, Canada, Chile, China, Costa Rica, Japan, Mexico, Panama, the Republic of Korea, Singapore, Thailand, and the United States. It also signed trade agreements with Guatemala and Honduras, although these are not yet in force; and it is participating in negotiations with members of the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) and El Salvador.

The agreements with Canada, the European Union, the Republic of Korea and the United States address environmental issues, albeit with differing scopes and ambitions. For example, the Trade Promotion Agreement with the United States has a chapter on the environment, but an environmental co-operation agreement has also been signed. The agreement with the European Union also has a chapter on trade and sustainable development, which addresses issues such as trade, the environment, and labour practices and policies. The Canada-Peru Free Trade Agreement has an environmental chapter, although an agreement on the environment was also signed.

The application of commitments and co-operation are evaluated to determine the degree of compliance with the contents of the agreements in question. These evaluations involve representatives from the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Tourism and the Ministry of the Environment. Specifically, since 2010, the Environmental Affairs Council, provided for in the Environmental Cooperation Agreement with the United States, meets periodically to determine the progress achieved in applying its provisions. In 2013, the Peru-Canada Environmental Committee met to analyse the issues considered in the agreement regarding the environment. Meetings have also been held of the Subcommittee on Trade and Sustainable Development of the Trade Agreement between Colombia, Peru and the United States.

During the process of negotiating an agreement, some countries make ex ante evaluations to analyse the potential environmental effects attributable to trade between the parties. Canada made an assessment of this type before signing its agreement with Peru, and concluded that the expansion of trade between the two countries would not have a significant domestic environmental impact, but it does not refer to the effects that the agreement could have for Peru. Moreover, the evaluation performed before the signing of the agreement between the European Union, Colombia and Peru, found that it could have negative consequences for the two countries such as deforestation and a reduction in biological diversity, owing to the expansion of agricultural and timber operations. It could also generate an increase in pollutant emissions from the manufacturing, agricultural and mining sectors (OECD, 2010). Peru has not yet performed ex ante environmental evaluations; but, given the sustained increase in its international trade, it might be advisable to start doing so.

Trade agreements are also subjected to ex-post environmental assessments. A recent study performed by the United States Government Accountability Office shows that Peru has adopted a series of measures including to improve environmental protection, strengthen the supervision agencies and combat illegal tree felling and trafficking in wild species (GAO, 2014). Peru does not expect to perform ex post environmental evaluations despite the fact that the agreement with Colombia and the European Union does provide for an evaluation of this type. In collaboration with the European Union, the country is collecting information on the experience gained from these evaluations, with a view to developing its own methodology.

Peru has engaged in co-operation activities in the framework of the trade agreements it has signed. The co-operation agreement with United States envisages activities focused on the forestry sector (MINCETUR, 2015). In addition, in fulfilment of the agreement on the environment with Canada, up to 2013 activities were developed in relation to climate change, particularly mitigation of the effects of climate change in the housing sector. A new project is currently being formulated on biodiversity conservation (OECD, 2014).

The measures implemented under the aforementioned trade agreements aim to adequately incorporate environmental protection, both in trade activities and in those related to foreign investment. Nonetheless, enforcement of the OECD guidelines on multinational enterprises and due diligence need further strengthening, for the responsible management of the supply chains of minerals sourced from conflict-affected and other high-risk zones.

4. Marine environment

4.1. International instruments to prevent marine pollution

Peru is signatory to several international conventions on the protection and conservation of the marine environment, including the following: the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (1973); the Action Plan for the Protection of the Marine Environment and Coastal Area of the Southeast Pacific; the Protocol for the Protection of the Southeast Pacific against Pollution from Land-Based Sources; the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (1974); the Supplementary Protocol to the Agreement on Regional Cooperation for Combating Pollution of the Southeast Pacific from Hydrocarbons and Other Harmful Substances; the Protocol for the Conservation and Management of Protected Marine and Coastal Areas of the Southeast Pacific; the Protocol on the programme for the regional study on the El Niño phenomenon in the Southeast Pacific; the International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Cooperation, and the 1992 Protocol amending the International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage.

Some of these instruments have been adopted under the auspices of the International Maritime Organization (IMO). The General Directorate of Harbour Masters and Coastguards (DICAPI), attached to the Ministry of Defence, is responsible for their application, by verifying that vessels entering Peruvian ports have international certificates accrediting fulfilment of the conditions needed to avoid risks in terms of safety and environmental damage. Although the system functions efficiently, implementation of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships is still insufficient.

Since 1992, Peru has been a party to the Latin American Agreement on Inspection of Ships by the State having Jurisdiction over the Port, the aim of which is to apply an effective inspection system to guarantee that foreign ships visiting the ports of countries in the region fulfil the regulations specified in the international conventions. Thus far, the agreement has been signed by 15 countries, whose maritime authorities undertake to inspect at least 20% of foreign ships entering the ports annually (Acuerdo Latino, 2012). Figures for 2013 show that the Maritime Authority of Peru inspected 27% of foreign ships entering its ports, thereby fulfilling the targets of the agreement.

Since 2008, Peru has been participating in the regional task group for application of the GloBallast Project, which aims to reduce the risk of blooms of exotic invasive aquatic species that use ballast waters as a vehicle of dispersion. This is a co-operation project financed by the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and implemented by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). In the fifth meeting of the regional group, held in Colombia, Peru reported on the awareness raising measures it is adopting, and activities aimed at ratifying the future international convention on the control and management of ship’s ballast waters and sediments (CPPS, 2014).

4.2. Conservation and regulation of maritime resources

Although Peru has fishing regulations, illegal fishing is also practised in the country. The Ministry of Production is responsible for inspecting catches in Peru’s coastal waters, and has often confiscated illegally caught specimens. As a way to combat illegal fishing internationally, the thirty-sixth session of the Conference of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), in 2009, approved an agreement on Port State Measures to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing. The agreement was signed by Peru but has not yet been ratified.

In 1996, Peru adopted a regulation prohibiting the catching of dolphins and small cetaceans. In addition, in 2014 it approved a National Action Plan for the Conservation and Management of Sharks, Rays and Related Species (PAN Tiburón – Perú). This plan includes other regional and international instruments for the protection of marine species, such as the Regional Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks of the Permanent Commission for the South Pacific and the International Plan of Action for Conservation and Management of Sharks, of FAO. It is also a party to international and regional instruments to protect marine resources, including the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling and the Agreement on the International Programme for the Conservation of Dolphins, and it is a member of the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission, the Permanent Commission for the South Pacific, the Latin American Organization for Fisheries Development and the Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization. Under these instruments, Peru has adopted measures to protect, conserve and manage marine resources. As an affiliate State, it also participates in the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources.

In 1997, Peru ratified the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, and in 1999 it ratified the Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles. Its most recent national report, submitted in 2014, states that it is undertaking a number of activities to promote the conservation of this species, including awareness-raising, observation and research programmes. Nonetheless, small-scale fishing tends to result in the unintentional capture of turtles. A study performed in three of the country’s ports on the incidental capture of this species owing to bottom set nets and drift nets, estimated that about 5 900 marine turtles are caught at these three sites every year (Alfaro-Shigueto et al., 2011).

5. Multilateral agreements on the environment related to waste, chemicals and hazardous substances

The Ministry of the Environment reports that fulfilment of international commitments on the environment, specifically related to solid waste and chemicals, adopted by Peru are governed in particular by the following: (i) Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management and the non-binding Global Plan of Action on the subject of 2006; (ii) the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, ratified in 1993; (iii) the International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides, of FAO, the most recent version of which was adopted in 2002; (iv) the Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade, ratified in 2005; (v) the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, ratified in 2005; (vi) the Convention concerning Prevention and Control of Occupational Hazards caused by Carcinogenic Substances and Agents of the International Labour Organization (ILO), ratified in 1976; (vii) the ILO Safety and Health in Mines Convention, ratified in 2008; (viii) the Joint Convention on the Safety of Spent Fuel Management and on the Safety of Radioactive Waste Management, of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), signed in 1998; (ix) the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships of the International Maritime Organization (IMO), signed in 1980; (x) the International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage of 1969, ratified in 1987, together with its protocols of 1976 and 1984, and the amendment to the latter; (xi) the IMO International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Cooperation, of 1990, signed in 2001; and (xii) the IMO Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter (1972), also known as the “London Convention”, ratified in 2003 (MINAM, 2014a).

In 2015, Peru ratified the Minamata Convention on Mercury, through Supreme Resolution No. 038-2015-RE; this ratification has far-reaching implications because the instrument will make it possible to deal with the problem of controlling mercury emissions and releases and their serious consequences for human health, forests, biodiversity, air quality, and water bodies. The European Commission proposes to adopt stricter laws on mercury use. In June 2016, a draft law was discussed which proposed banning its use in member States where artisanal gold mining activities take place.

The ratification and signing of these international agreements have enabled Peru to provide funding, transfer technologies and receive international technical assistance to deal with environmental problems. The implementation and fulfilment of commitments on the environment is framed in the National Environmental Management System, which consists of working commissions or groups at the initial level, including the technical group on chemical substances.

6. Bilateral and regional co-operation

Peru participates in the Forum of Ministers of the Environment of Latin America and the Caribbean, which meets twice a year and serves as a platform for regional dialogue and co-operation. Among other issues, the 2014 meeting considered sustainable consumption and production, climate change, application of Principle 10 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, environmental education and atmospheric pollution.

Peru also participates in the Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization (ACTO), consisting of Brazil, the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, the Plurinational State of Bolivia and Suriname. This organisation approved a strategic co-operation agenda on the environment in 2010, which includes activities being implemented in relation to forests, water resources, endangered species of wild flora and fauna, and protected areas, among others (ACTO, 2010). The organisation is implementing the project for monitoring deforestation, logging and land use change in the pan-Amazonian forest, aimed at establishing participatory systems for monitoring forest cover in the Amazon region and the strengthening of regional platforms for managing forest areas, which cover some 8.2 million km² of Peruvian territory. It is also executing the project for integrated and sustainable management of transboundary water resources in the Amazon River basin, considering climate variability and climate change, which receives financial assistance from GEF and is being implemented by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). The objective of this project is to formulate a consensus-based programme of strategic actions that allow for integrated planning and management of the watershed (GEF, 2015).

Peru has signed bilateral co-operation agreements with several countries in the region.3 Alongside the intensification of co-operation in the last decade, it has also participated in annual meetings of Councils of Ministers, joint commissions and binational technical commissions, among others. These meetings have gradually prepared an environmental agenda which, among other things, addresses illegal logging and cross-border pollution, particularly owing to artisanal gold mining.

In 2014, the Plurinational State of Bolivia and Peru used GEF funding to launch the project for the integrated management of water resources in the Titicaca-Desaguadero-Poopó-Salar de Coipasa system, to promote the conservation and sustainable use of that system’s water resources, by updating the Binational Global Master Plan. At the Presidential Meeting and First Binational Cabinet of the Ministers of Peru and Bolivia, held in June 2015, the presidents of the two countries created the High-Level Binational Commission, which has met twice.

Another of the cross-border agreements supported by Peru is the Andean Strategy for Integrated Water Resources Management of the Andean Community, which includes seven lines of action. This strategy was adopted by the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and the Plurinational State of Bolivia in 2011, and implementation has begun (CAN, 2012).

Under the auspices of the Pacific Alliance, Peru is co-operating with Colombia, Chile and Mexico in the climate change scientific research network, which aims to exchange experiences in the scope of the research, study of the application of scientific knowledge and development of capacities for managing climate change. Peru was represented by the Ministry of the Environment and the National Council for Science, Technology and Technological Innovation. The Committee on Scientific Research into Climate Change drafted and disseminated a study on opportunities for collaboration in research on climate change in the countries of the Pacific Alliance. In addition, the project for scientific co-operation on climate change in the Pacific Alliance: monitoring of new generation biodiversity to support processes of adaptation to and mitigation of climate change is expected to be developed. Another focus of this network is sustainable consumption and production, particularly clean production, business development, green labelling and sustainable public procurement (Pacific Alliance, 2015). This co-operation is taking place within the framework of the Memorandum of Understanding on the Pacific Platform for Cooperation.

At the bilateral level, Peru has recently signed a technical co-operation agreement with Japan on forest conservation and reduction of emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, which is expected to help reduce the associated greenhouse gas emissions.

7. Official development assistance

International co-operation provides major support for the efforts being deployed by Peru in the environmental and other domains. Peru has been considered an upper-middle-income country since 2008. According to OECD data, in 2013 official development assistance (ODA) amounted to USD 532.1 million in gross terms, and USD 367 million net. The main donor countries were Germany, Spain, the United States and Japan (OECD, 2015). In 2005-2009, development co-operation averaged USD 425 million per year.

Since its accession to the Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness in 2006, Peru has adopted measures to make more effective use of the ODA resources it receives. The Peruvian Agency for International Cooperation is the country’s governing body for international development co-operation. In 2011, an evaluation was made of progress in the effective use of external assistance funds, and the areas that needed to be strengthened. The evaluation noted progress in terms of the predictability of assistance and co-ordination of local capacity building; but it also found that the national development strategy needed to be made more operationally effective (OECD, 2011).

In 2012, Peru published its National Policy on International Technical Cooperation, the aim of which is to increase the contribution of international non-reimbursable co-operation to activities in Peru on development and international engagement. The policy defines five targets to be attained by applying strategies in four areas, one of which relates specifically to natural resources and the environment (APCI, 2012).

The Peruvian Agency for International Cooperation developed an annual international co-operation plan in 2013, which describes the progress made and identifies the challenges that would need to be addressed to make this form of co-operation effective. This is highly important, since international co-operation has been declining in absolute terms; and, although it represented less than 0.5% of GDP, the transfer of knowledge and good practices and the development of capacities are very important for the country. The annual plan shows that the non-reimbursable resources received are thematically and territorially dispersed. Analysis of these resources showed that 25% had been channelled into the seventh Millennium Development Goal of guaranteeing environmental sustainability.

South-South co-operation has been increasing in recent decades, and Peru remains a recipient country, although it is also a supplier in several domains. The 2015 report on the subject by the Ibero-American General Secretariat describes Peru as an emerging country in terms of capacity transmission, an area in which is implementing eight projects in 19 bilateral co-operation activities (SEGIB, 2015).

Peru also participates actively in international projects targeting climate change. In 2013 it received USD 50 million from Climate Investment Funds (CIFs) to develop a project in the forestry sector. The aims of the project included improving governance, innovation and the granting of land titles, so as to reduce pressure on the forest and increase the recovery of degraded areas (FIC, 2013).

Peru has financed 38 national projects with GEF contributions totalling USD 118 million that generated USD 552 million in co-financing. These projects are divided into the following categories: biodiversity (20), climate change (12), multifocal (3),4 persistent organic pollutants (1) and soil degradation (1). Peru has also participated in 33 regional and global projects that received a GEF contribution amounting to USD 208 million and generated USD 435 million in co-financing. These were divided into the following categories: biodiversity (12), multifocal (10), climate change (6), persistent organic pollutants (3) and international waters (2) (GEF, 2013).

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Notes

← 1. The tenth session of the Conference of the Parties, held in Nagoya, adopted the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011 2020 and the 20 Aichi Biodiversity Targets set for 2020.

← 2. The term “nutraceutical” was coined by Stephen L. Defelice as a compound of the words “nutrition” and “pharmaceutical”. It refers to products or foods that provide medical benefits, including for the prevention and/or treatment of diseases [online: http://www.nutraceuticamedica.org/definicion.htm].

← 3. Including Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, Honduras, Mexico, Panama and the Plurinational State of Bolivia.

← 4. These projects aim to implement several agreements simultaneously and in a mutually complementary manner.