Indicator D6. What are the pathways to becoming a teacher and a school head?
Typically, the duration of initial teacher education programmes varies from 3 years in Costa Rica, the Flemish and French Communities of Belgium, and New Zealand to 6.5 years in Germany, for prospective lower secondary teachers of general subjects. Usually, the duration is similar for primary and secondary teachers, but shorter for pre-primary teachers. A tertiary qualification is awarded upon completion of the programme in most countries, regardless of the level of education at which the teacher will teach.
Graduates from initial teacher education programmes for pre-primary, primary or secondary teachers can immediately start teaching in schools and acquire full teaching qualification in nearly half of the 36 countries and other participants with available data. To become a fully qualified lower secondary teacher of general subjects, the successful completion of a probation period is required in one-third of the 36 cases.
School head positions for schools covering either primary, lower secondary general or upper secondary general programmes are open only to fully qualified teachers in nearly two-thirds of the countries and other participants with available data.
1. Year of reference differs from 2021. Refer to the source table for more information.
Source: OECD (2022), Tables D6.1, D6.4 and D6.6. See Source section for more information and Annex 3 for notes (https://www.oecd.org/education/education-at-a-glance/EAG2022_X3-D.pdf).
Context
As schooling has expanded, raising the quality of education has become an important part of the policy agenda in most OECD countries. High-quality teachers and school heads are at the heart of high-quality student learning outcomes, and thus essential to achieving this goal (Schleicher, 2012[1]).
How candidates are chosen to train for and enter the teaching profession influences the supply of qualified teachers, both in quantity and quality. The criteria and requirements applied to prospective teachers also reflect the profiles of teachers who are prepared for the teaching – and non-teaching – responsibilities they will perform on the job (see Indicator D4). Adequate compensation (see Indicator D3) and the value placed on the teaching profession by society can also help to attract and maintain the pool of aspiring teachers.
Many countries are facing difficulties in attracting talented individuals to become teachers and replace those leaving the profession (see Indicator D7 in (OECD, 2021[2])). Offering pathways into teaching other than initial teacher education can help to mitigate immediate teacher shortages, and also to diversify the profiles of teachers (Musset, 2010[3]).
Initial education and pre-service training are only the starting points for teachers’ and school heads’ ongoing professional development. Given the constant changes in student demographics and the need to update their knowledge and competencies as society evolves, continuing professional development is essential to maintaining the quality of staff in the education system (see Indicator D7).
Other findings
Initial teacher education of pre-primary, primary and lower secondary (general subject) teachers is organised according to the concurrent model (in which pedagogical and practical training are provided at the same time as courses in academic subject matter) in more than three-quarters of OECD and partner countries. However, for upper secondary school teachers, the consecutive model, in which pedagogical and practical training come after courses in the academic subject matter, is approximately as common as the concurrent model.
Approximately two-fifths of countries and other participants set a limit on the number of student places for entry into initial teacher education of pre-primary, primary and secondary teachers of general subjects (i.e. a numerus clausus policy). Grade point averages from secondary school(s) or upper secondary examinations are the most widely used selective criteria to enter initial teacher education.
In nearly all countries, studies that are closely related to teaching and pedagogy (such as pedagogical studies/didactics), the academic subjects that prospective teachers will teach and a teaching practicum are mandatory elements of initial teacher education programmes for prospective secondary teachers of general subjects.
Formal inductions consist of structured and repeated activities to support the introduction of new teachers into the profession, such as mentoring by experienced teachers or peer work with other new teachers. In most countries except Costa Rica, Latvia and Switzerland, such inductions are either mandatory for all prospective teachers or mandatory for prospective teachers at the discretion of individual schools in at least one level of education.
Alternative pathways into the teaching profession (for individuals without teaching qualifications but with professional experience outside teaching) are available in half of the countries and other participants with available data at primary level, but in more than half at the secondary level.
Pathways to becoming a teacher
Becoming a teacher usually requires the completion of initial teacher education. Once completed, graduates of initial teacher education may be required to fulfil additional requirements before they can start teaching or be considered fully qualified. Once new teachers start work, schools may be required to offer them a formal induction.
Initial teacher education
Organisation of initial teacher education
For prospective lower secondary teachers of general subjects, the duration of initial teacher education programmes ranges from 3 years in Costa Rica, the Flemish and the French Communities of Belgium, and New Zealand to 6.5 years in Germany. In nearly two-thirds of 36 OECD and partner countries and other participants, the duration of initial teacher education is the same for primary and lower and upper secondary teachers of general subjects. In less than two-thirds of the countries and other participants with comparable data, the duration of initial teacher education is 0.5 to 3.5 years shorter for pre-primary teachers than for lower secondary teachers of general subjects (Figure D6.2).
These differences in the duration of initial teacher education may reflect differences in the organisation of pedagogical and practical training and in the qualification awarded. Across 36 countries and other participants with available data, no single model of initial teacher education prevails for prospective lower secondary teachers of general subjects. The concurrent model, where pedagogical and practical training are provided at the same time as courses in the academic subject matter to be taught, is available in 27 countries and other participants. Meanwhile, the consecutive model, where pedagogical and practical training are provided after subject matter courses, is available in 22. In most countries, only one model of initial education is used, but 13 countries and other participants offer both. The average duration of consecutive model programmes (5.1 years) is about half a year longer than the average duration of concurrent model programmes (4.6 years). This differences in length can largely be explained by the duration of the pedagogical and practical training in the consecutive model, ranging from 0.5 years in Mexico to 3 years in Italy (Table D6.1 and Figure X3.D6.3 in Annex 3).
The most prevalent model of initial teacher education does vary depending on the level of education to be taught. The concurrent model is predominant for initial teacher education of pre-primary, primary and lower secondary teachers in more than three-quarters of OECD and partner countries with available information. In contrast, for prospective upper secondary teachers (teaching either general or vocational subjects), concurrent and consecutive models exist in an equal number of countries and other participants. More systems use both concurrent and consecutive models for prospective lower and upper secondary teachers of general subjects (13-14 countries and other participants) than for prospective pre-primary and primary teachers (5-6 countries and other participants) (Table D6.1).
In most countries and other participants, a tertiary qualification is awarded upon completion of initial teacher education, regardless of the level of education at which the teacher will teach. This not only signals the level of knowledge and skills that the new teacher has acquired, but may also indicate the social status of teachers. For example, graduates of initial teacher education programmes for lower secondary teachers of general subjects are usually awarded a bachelor’s degree (in 18 countries and other participants) or a master’s degree (in 20 countries and other participants). In countries and other participants where initial teacher education lasts for three to four years, graduates are awarded a bachelor’s degree, except in Costa Rica where a three-year programme leads to a master’s degree. In contrast, in countries where initial teacher education lasts more than four years, graduates are awarded a master’s degree, except in Colombia where a five-year programme leads to a bachelor’s degree (Table D6.1).
However, the type of tertiary qualification awarded at the end of initial teacher education varies according to the level of education at which the teacher will teach, or the subject taught. For prospective pre-primary teachers, the most prevalent type of qualification is a bachelor’s degree, but for prospective upper secondary teachers of general subjects a master’s degree is more common. For prospective secondary teachers of vocational subjects, bachelor’s or master’s degrees are equally prevalent, although a short-cycle tertiary qualification can also be awarded in England (United Kingdom), the Flemish Community of Belgium and Mexico (teachers at lower secondary level only) (Table D6.1).
Selection into and during initial teacher education
The educational requirements for entry into initial teacher training, which are tertiary degree programmes, differ little. In most countries and other participants with available data, the minimum requirement is usually an upper secondary qualification. However, in a few countries, the minimum educational requirement for prospective pre-primary teachers is a lower secondary qualification (Austria, Brazil, the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic). In Brazil this is also the case for prospective primary teachers. Costa Rica requires a short-cycle tertiary qualification for entry into initial teacher education at all levels of education, and in the Flemish Community of Belgium, a bachelor’s degree or equivalent is required for entry into initial teacher training to become an upper secondary teacher of general subjects (Table D6.2).
Some countries limit the number of student places for entry into initial teacher education (i.e. a numerus clausus policy). For example, over one-third of countries and other participants with available data implement numerus clausus policies for initial teacher education of pre-primary, primary and secondary teachers of general subjects, and most of them have one or more selective criteria, except Italy (for secondary teachers) and Norway (for pre-primary teachers) (Table D6.2).
Over two-thirds of the countries and other participants with data have at least one selective criterion to enter and/or to progress through initial teacher education. In most cases, selection occurs at entry, except in Germany and Italy where there is no selection to enter the initial teacher education programme, but there is for students to progress into the later stages (Figure D6.1 and Table D6.1).
Regardless of the level of education to be taught, the most widespread criterion for entry into initial teacher education is grade point averages from secondary school(s) or upper secondary examinations. Among countries and other participants with at least one criterion for prospective pre-primary, primary and secondary teachers of general subjects, nearly three-fifths use school grades or upper secondary examinations. Competitive examinations are used in about two-fifths of the cases with at least one criterion, interviews in less than two-fifths of the cases and a standardised test in less than one-fifth of the cases. Some countries use other criteria, such as portfolios of the candidates’ work, minimum grades in specific subjects and/or aptitude or competence examinations, but each of these is used in very few countries. In the majority of cases where entry is selective, a combination of criteria are used: over four-fifths of these countries and other participants use more than one criterion, or more than one can be used at the autonomy of each institution (Table D6.2).
Initial teacher education following the consecutive model may also use selection before students can progress to the next stage, in addition to validating the courses and degrees taken in the first stage. Eleven countries and other participants have a numerus clausus policy limiting the number of students who can progress to the next stage. In Mexico and Slovenia, even though the number of student places in the next stage is fixed and limited, there are no criteria used for selection of students. About half of the 22 countries and other participants with a consecutive model use at least one criterion to select which prospective lower secondary teachers of general subjects can proceed to the next stage of initial teacher education. In the Czech Republic, criteria can vary within the country as they are set at the discretion of individual initial teacher education institutions. The criteria used include grade point averages from the first stage of initial teacher education, interviews, standardised tests and competitive examination (in four or less countries for each criterion). Four countries use other additional criteria, such as a professional suitability test, additional academic certifications/degrees and a minimum level of foreign language (Table D6.2).
Content of initial teacher education
The content of initial teacher education not only covers the academic subjects that prospective teachers will teach, but also pedagogical didactics, child and adolescent development, educational science, and sometimes research skills development. Prospective teachers are also usually required to participate in a teaching practicum.
In 20 out of 36 countries and other participants, all prospective teachers take a common set of courses, irrespective of the level of education or subject they will teach. For example, all students of initial teacher education in Japan are required to take certain courses (e.g. pedagogical studies/didactics and child/adolescent development studies). In the Flemish Community of Belgium, all initial teacher education programmes work towards the same framework, “Basic Competences”, which is the reference framework for teacher education of knowledge, skills and attitudes that every teacher must have (Table D6.3).
In initial teacher education programmes for lower secondary teachers of general subjects, the academic subject to be taught are mandatory for all students in nearly all 36 countries and other participants, except in Costa Rica and the Netherlands, where it is at the discretion of individual institutions, and in France where students are only advised to choose academic subject courses that they intend to teach in the first stage of initial teacher education (bachelor’s degree), but are required to take these courses in the second stage of initial teacher education (master’s degree) (Figure D6.3).
The required content areas of initial teacher education differ between prospective teachers of general and vocational subjects, and between teachers intending to teach at different levels of education. For example, studying the academic subject to be taught is mandatory in initial teacher education programmes for all prospective lower and upper secondary teachers of general subjects in nearly all countries. However, fewer countries and other participants require this for prospective pre-primary and primary teachers, or for secondary teachers of vocational subjects. It may be due to the nature of these levels of education and subjects. For example, at pre-primary level the concept of academic subject may not be clear, and at the secondary level prospective teachers of vocational subjects may be required to acquire vocational subject matter knowledge prior to or outside of initial teacher education programmes (Table D6.3).
Studying a minimum number of academic subjects is mandatory for prospective lower secondary teachers of general subjects in 18 countries and other participants. One academic subject is mandatory in one-half of these countries and two or more in the other half. In a few of these countries, other specific subjects are also mandatory for all prospective teachers, such as academic writing in Israel and a foreign language in the Slovak Republic (Table D6.3).
Academic subject studies might be taught either specifically to prospective teachers or as part of a wider course alongside students studying the subject for purposes other than teaching. Courses in relevant subject areas are provided specifically to prospective pre-primary, primary and lower secondary (general subjects) teachers in about three-fifths of the countries, and to prospective upper secondary (general subjects) teachers in less than half of the countries. The difference across levels of education could be explained by the extent of the knowledge that prospective teachers need to acquire and the organisation of initial teacher education: for example, the first stage of initial teacher education programmes following the consecutive model is often a bachelor’s programmes in an academic discipline (Table D6.3). Academic subject studies specific to prospective teachers may make it easier to integrate in cross-curricular topics, such as global citizenship education and education for sustainable development (see Box D6.1).
Beyond offering students literacy and numeracy skills, education should teach learners about building peace, sustainable development, greater justice, and social and gender equality. Providing students with the skills and competencies to allow them to live together and to live sustainably is central. Global citizenship education (GCED) and education for sustainable development (ESD) are recognised as integral elements of Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 4 on quality education and a key enabler of all other SDGs. Indicator 4.7.1 measures the extent to which (i) global citizenship education and (ii) education for sustainable development are mainstreamed in (a) national education policies; (b) curricula; (c) teacher education; and (d) student assessment in primary and secondary education. Analysing the extent to which these subjects are included in national education policies, curricula, teacher education and student assessment gives an indication of future generations’ awareness on these topics.
The Indicator 4.7.1 was first published in the UN’s Global SDG Indicator database in July 2021 following the completion of the seventh consultation on the UNESCO’s 1974 Recommendation concerning Education for International Understanding (UNESCO, 1975[4]). Data are currently available for 26 OECD and partner countries. The indicator is presented using a separate index scoring between 0 and 1 for each of its four components: national education policies, curricula, teacher education and student assessment.
Brazil, France and Spain are the only three OECD and partner countries that report high levels of mainstreaming of GCED and ESD in primary and secondary education across all four components. About half of the countries reported that GCED and ESD were fully mainstreamed in national education policies (i.e. a score of 1) in primary and secondary education and a similar proportion in student assessment. In contrast, no country reported this for curricula and only 3 countries (Brazil, France and Korea) out of 23 reported it for teacher education (Figure D6.4).
Teacher education has a key role in promoting the basic theme of education for sustainable development. Teachers are in direct contact with students in class and they may guide better the young generation for sustainable consumption of resources (Esa, 2010[5]). Indicator 4.7.1 captures the teacher education component of the indicator by asking questions on the GCED and ESD components in the initial and pre-service training of teachers, trainers and educators. The indicator also measures the ESD themes incorporated in the teacher education such as cultural diversity and tolerance, gender equality, human rights, peace and non-violence, climate change, environmental sustainability, human survival and well-being, and sustainable consumption and production. Lastly, the two remaining questions are on the learning dimension (knowledge, skills, values and attitudes/behaviours) and teaching approaches (GCED/ESD as separate subjects, cross-curricular, integrated or whole school) (UNESCO-UIS, 2022[6]).
This is the first time these results have been available, so it is not yet possible to determine progress over time. Nevertheless, they set a baseline against which future comparisons can be made. In the meantime, reporting countries may reflect on their overall results and consider where they may need to make further efforts to fully mainstream GCED and ESD in their education systems – not just in primary and secondary education, as reflected in the global indicator, but across all levels and types of education. However, wide variations between components should be interpreted with caution, as the data are based on countries’ self-reporting of GCED and ESD implementation in their education systems. There are also differences in the number and types of questions from which data have been drawn to compile the indicator, ranging from three questions for student assessment to five for curricula. Fewer and simpler questions make it more likely that component scores will be very high, while more and more complex question make it less likely.
Educational science studies (e.g. psychology of education, sociology of education) is mandatory for prospective teachers at all levels of education and types of subjects in about three-quarters of the countries and other participants, and mandatory at the discretion of individual institutions in less than one-quarter. It is not offered to prospective vocational secondary teachers or general upper secondary teachers in Mexico (Table D6.3).
In nearly all countries, the study of child/adolescent development, which helps to prepare teachers for various non-teaching activities (e.g. student counselling, communication with parents/guardians), is either mandatory for all prospective teachers or mandatory at the discretion of individual institutions. However, there is some variation across different levels of education. The subject is mandatory in nearly three-quarters of countries and other participants for all prospective pre-primary and primary teachers, but this falls below two-thirds for prospective lower and upper secondary (general subjects) teachers. The variation may be related to differences in the task requirements of teachers (see Indicator D4) (Table D6.3).
In contrast to studies that are closely related to teaching and pedagogy, research skills development is less often mandatory for prospective teachers. For prospective teachers at primary and secondary (general subjects) levels, for example, it is mandatory for all prospective teachers in nearly three-fifths of the countries and other participants, mandatory at the discretion of individual institutions in nearly one-third of the countries and other participants, offered on a voluntary basis in Japan and not offered in Denmark (as an independent course) and Mexico. Among the countries and other participants where it is mandatory, either for all prospective teachers or at the discretion of individual institutions, less than half of them require a dissertation on pedagogical issues based on students’ own research (Table D6.3).
A teaching practicum provides initial teacher education students with a supervised/guided teaching experience where they can benefit from the instructional expertise of an experienced teacher. A teaching practicum is mandatory in order to teach at any given level of education in nearly all countries. The exceptions are Costa Rica (at all levels of education) and Greece (at the secondary level), where individual initial teacher education institutions decide whether a teaching practicum is mandatory, and Denmark (at upper secondary level) and Mexico (to teach vocational subjects at secondary levels, and general subjects at upper secondary level), where a practicum is not offered (Table D6.3).
In most countries where a teaching practicum is mandatory, its duration is the same for all prospective teachers at a given level of education (but can vary between levels of education). However, in Estonia, Greece (for prospective teachers at the pre-primary and primary levels) and the Slovak Republic, the duration of teaching practicum varies across initial teacher education institutions. In the Netherlands, the duration is at the discretion of the schools where student teachers perform teaching practicum. The length of the teaching practicum varies widely across countries. For example, for prospective teachers of general subjects at the lower secondary level, the teaching practicum ranges from 155 hours in Japan to 1 800 hours in Hungary, though the typical duration is less than 800 hours in three-quarters of the countries and other participants with data (Table D6.3).
As the teaching practicum is intended to allow student teachers to learn from an experienced teacher, mentor teachers take the main responsibility for supporting student teachers in all countries, except in Costa Rica where the support role is only filled by staff members of institutions in charge of the initial teacher education programme. Mentor teachers are engaged by a higher education institution in Ireland. Other people responsible for supporting student teachers during the practicum include staff from the teacher education institutions (in nearly 90% of the countries) and school management (in about 60% of the countries). In Italy, co-ordinating mentors oversee the organisation of school placements and liaise between mentor teachers and initial teacher education institutions (Table D6.3).
Although the mandatory content of initial teacher education programmes tends to be very similar within countries, the details of the curriculum may vary depending on the initial teacher education institutions providing them (see Box D6.2).
Decisions about the content of initial teacher education – curriculum design, content frameworks, accreditation and evaluation of programmes, and advice and recommendation about content – are the responsibilities of various levels of government or institutions across countries. Among countries where data are available, the roles of various decision makers are very similar across levels of education and types of subjects. In about three-quarters of countries and other participants, one entity or level of government may have more than one role in deciding on the contents of initial teacher education (Table D6.5, available on line).
Higher education institutions play a large role in making decisions on initial teacher education. In most countries, these institutions typically provide initial teacher education and design the curriculum for it. The exceptions are Austria (at pre-primary level), the Czech Republic (at pre-primary level, when initial teacher education is provided in upper secondary schools), Luxembourg, Mexico (for vocational subjects at lower secondary level) and the Slovak Republic (at pre-primary level, when initial teacher education is provided in upper secondary schools). In less than half of countries and other participants, higher education institutions are also involved in setting content frameworks, accreditation, evaluation and/or providing advice and recommendation. For example, these refer to a self-feedback process in Greece, or an upward feedback to relevant stakeholders that could improve the frameworks and accreditation requirements of initial teacher education programmes in the Czech Republic (Figure D6.5).
Central/state government education authorities are involved in many decisions about the contents of initial teacher education programmes in nearly all countries and other participants except in England (United Kingdom) (for prospective secondary teachers of vocational subjects), Mexico (for prospective lower secondary teachers of vocational subjects) and Scotland (United Kingdom). They have the main role in setting the frameworks for the contents of initial teacher education programmes in about two-thirds of countries and other participants where data are available, and provide accreditation to programmes in a little under half of them. This may help to harmonise curricula designed by individual higher education institutions, ensuring that all programmes across the country meet similar standards. In Brazil and Switzerland, where the education systems are decentralised, subnational level education authorities (at the regional and/or local/municipal level) are involved in setting the framework for the content of the programmes together with the central level education authorities (Table D6.5, available on line).
An independent body or agency working on behalf of the public authorities provides accreditation for or evaluates initial teacher education programmes in more than half of the countries and other participants with data. Their precise roles vary across countries, depending on their nature. In many countries, these independent bodies or agencies are specifically set up to perform accreditation and/or evaluation, such as the Quality Assurance Council in Austria or the National Agency for Quality Evaluation and Accreditation in Spain; to promote professional standards for teachers, such as the Teaching Council in Ireland and Scotland (United Kingdom); or to set policies for tertiary education programmes, such as the Council of Higher Education in Israel and Lithuania (Table D6.5, available on line).
Various actors provide advice and recommendations on the contents of initial teacher education programmes. In about half of the countries and other participants, teacher’s professional organisations and/or teachers’ unions are involved in providing advice and recommendations. These groups are consulted in many countries even where there may be no legal obligation to do so (e.g. the Czech Republic, Ireland, New Zealand, Poland and Sweden). Inspectorates provide advice and recommendations on the contents in five or fewer countries (Table D6.5, available on line).
Entry into teaching profession for graduates of initial teacher education
The requirements for entry into the teaching profession tend to be the same whatever the level of education or the type of subjects (general or vocational) the prospective teacher will teach. Graduates from initial teacher education programmes can immediately start teaching at the primary, lower secondary or upper secondary levels and acquire a full teaching qualification in about half of the 36 countries and other participants with available information. In the others, they need to meet additional requirements either before starting teaching or becoming fully qualified teachers. These include acquiring a credential or licence for teaching (in addition to the relevant academic qualifications), passing examinations and/or successfully completing an induction or probation period (Figure D6.1).
In about one-third of countries and other participants, graduates from initial teacher education programmes cannot start teaching until they fulfil some additional criteria. For example, candidates to teach general subjects at lower secondary level are selected on the basis of the results of competitive examinations in nine countries, need to acquire relevant credentials in five countries and must satisfy minimum performance requirements in a standardised test in four countries. Only one additional criterion is required to teach general subjects at lower secondary level in most of these countries where additional criteria exist, but more than one are required in Australia, Costa Rica, Greece, Italy, Japan and Türkiye (Table D6.6, available on line).
In almost half of the countries and other participants, new teachers must fulfil additional requirements to become fully qualified teachers, even if they are eligible to start teaching. For instance, new lower secondary teachers of general subjects need to acquire relevant credentials in Costa Rica, England (United Kingdom), New Zealand, Slovenia and Sweden; take an examination in Costa Rica, Hungary, Korea and Türkiye; or be selected through an open competitive process in Colombia. In one-third of the 36 countries and other participants, candidates must successfully complete a probation period before becoming a fully qualified lower secondary teacher of general subjects. The typical duration of the probation period ranges from 3 months in Costa Rica to 24 months in Greece, Hungary, Luxembourg and New Zealand. In England (United Kingdom), France, Greece, Hungary, Luxembourg, Spain and Türkiye, the probation period fully overlaps with the period of mandatory formal induction for new teachers (Table D6.6, available on line).
Formal induction for new teachers
Formal inductions help new teachers make a successful start to their teaching career. Apart from Costa Rica, Latvia and Switzerland, such programmes are mandatory (for all teachers or at the discretion of individual schools) in at least one level of education. These induction programmes last 12 months or less in 20 countries and other participants, but 24 months or more in Hungary, Luxembourg, Mexico (at pre-primary, primary and general lower secondary levels), the Netherlands and New Zealand. Six countries and other participants either do not specify a duration, leaving induction programmes to be conducted at the discretion of individual schools (Australia, the Czech Republic, Denmark, and the Flemish and French Communities of Belgium) or do not define it at the national level (Colombia) (Table D6.6, available on line).
Formal induction often requires collaboration. Programmes are organised in collaboration between the school and the teacher education institution and/or ministry in nearly half of the countries and other participants where formal induction is mandatory (whether for all teachers or at the discretion of individual schools). More than one person and/or body is responsible for supporting new teachers during their formal induction in most countries which have it, except in Colombia where only mentor teachers support new teachers and in Korea where only local authorities support them (Table D6.6, available on line).
Almost four in ten countries and other participants with a mandatory formal induction programme require the individuals supporting new teachers to have formal training. In most countries, teachers can take on the responsibility as mentor teachers on a voluntary basis and/or at the request of their schools, and this additional responsibility often comes with a reduction in their teaching workload and/or financial compensation (see Indicators D3 and D4) (Table D6.6, available on line).
Legal employment status of new fully qualified teachers
In a large majority of countries, new teachers in public educational institutions become either public sector employees or civil servants (see Definitions) once they are fully qualified. For example, lower secondary teachers of general subjects are most commonly public sector employees (in 18 out of 36 countries and other participants), followed by civil servants (in 12 countries). In Brazil, no information on the status of new teachers is available, but 70% of all teachers in service are civil servants. In Luxembourg, most teachers are civil servants, but there are some with public sector employees status. New teachers in public educational institutions are subject to general employment legislation as for other workers only in Estonia, Latvia, the Netherlands and the Slovak Republic (Table D6.1).
In almost all countries, the employment status is the same for all new fully qualified teachers, whatever the level of education at which they teach. However, in Austria, Germany and New Zealand, new pre-primary teachers are general employees, while those in primary schools are public sector employees or civil servants. These subtle differences could result from different institutional arrangements between these levels (e.g. in New Zealand, pre-primary education is provided in early childhood education centres while primary and secondary education are provided in school settings) and/or differences in the level of qualification acquired through initial teacher education (Table D6.1).
The legal employment status is the same for secondary teachers of general and vocational subjects in all countries and other participants with data. In England (United Kingdom), all teachers of vocational subjects teach in government-dependent private institutions, and thus are not public sector employees, unlike teachers of general subjects in public institutions (Table D6.1).
Alternative pathways into the teaching profession
Many countries offer pathways into the teaching profession for individuals with professional experience outside teaching and without teaching qualifications. These pathways diversify the teaching workforce and could help mitigate immediate teacher shortages. Prospective teachers taking these alternative routes (referred to as side-entrants) may start teaching immediately without any additional requirements, or be required to take relevant teacher training in various formats (e.g. training in typical teacher education institutions or school-based training) before and/or while teaching.
In many countries and other participants, the existence and types of alternative pathways vary between levels of education, possibly reflecting varying degrees of teacher shortages. For example, Luxembourg only provides alternative pathways for primary teachers, due to a shortage of primary teachers in the school year 2020/21. Alternative pathways are slightly more common for teachers of vocational subjects than for general subjects: at upper secondary level, more types of pathways are available for teachers of vocational subjects than their counterparts teaching general subjects in five countries and other participants (Table D6.7, available on line).
There are alternative pathways to teaching for prospective lower secondary teachers of general subjects in more than half of the countries and other participants with available information (20 out of 36). Usually, there are just one or two alternative routes for side-entrant teachers per country, but in the Netherlands and the Slovak Republic there are four or more (Table D6.7, available on line).
Side-entrant teachers of general subjects at lower secondary level can start teaching with no requirement to complete training in 8 out of the 20 countries and other participants offering such routes. However, this pathway is limited to applicants meeting specific conditions (e.g. in Poland, for side-entrant teachers who will acquire a teaching qualification within a year) or for exceptional circumstances such as a lack of teachers in some areas or subjects (e.g. in Austria and the French Community of Belgium) (Table D6.7, available on line).
Training in typical teacher education institutions (e.g. providers of initial teacher education) is the most common form of training required for side-entrant teachers of general subjects at lower secondary level (in about four in five countries). About one-third of the countries provide other types of training that are mostly school-based, in other types of institutions (e.g. the “Choose to Teach” programme in Lithuania) and/or via distance learning (Table D6.7, available on line).
These alternative forms of training allow some flexibility as they can be attended on a part- or full-time basis and taken before and/or after starting teaching. Training is available on a full-time basis in three-fifths of the countries and on a part-time basis in a similar number of countries, lasting for between 12 and 60 full-time equivalent months (for countries for which the duration of the training can be reported). In nearly all countries with some information on training requirements, side-entrant teachers of general subjects at lower secondary level can choose to take training either before they start teaching or while they are working as teachers. Only Germany and New Zealand (for full-time training programmes) require side-entrants to take the training before starting their teaching activities. Side-entrants who have taken relevant training become fully qualified everywhere except in New Zealand, where they need to also successfully complete induction before they are awarded a full practising certificate, which is the same as for new teachers who completed typical initial teacher education programmes (Table D6.7, available on line).
Side-entrant teachers of general subjects at lower secondary level are paid according to the same salary scale as other teachers in most countries, except in Austria and the French Community of Belgium where side-entrant teachers who started teaching without training have different compensation. Although these side-entrants may bring some diversity into the teacher population, their past work experience is not likely to be taken into account in their starting salary: it is not considered when setting their starting salary in six countries and only considered at the discretion of the school or education authorities in another six countries and other participants. Prior experiences has some impact on starting salaries in Austria, where up to 10 years of work experience is considered; the French Community of Belgium, where public sector experience is considered; and the Slovak Republic, where experience in the subject taught is considered (Table D6.7, available on line).
Pathways to becoming a school head
Eligibility requirements for school heads
Becoming a school head can be a career development option for teachers wishing to take on leadership responsibilities, and the chance to benefit from higher salaries (see Indicator D3). Among the 36 countries and other participants with information on pathways to becoming teachers, most could also provide information on pathways to becoming a school head. The exception is Brazil where the relevant regulations are established by subnational education networks, so no information is available at the national level.
In more than four-fifths of these countries and other participants, teachers can apply for positions as heads of schools covering only lower secondary general programmes if they are fully qualified. Among others, candidates in Lithuania and Norway are not required to be fully qualified teachers, and in Denmark, Estonia, the Netherlands and Sweden, eligibility conditions to apply to these positions is not strictly limited to teachers (Table D6.4).
In four-fifths of the countries and other participants with data, teachers need to satisfy at least one selective criterion to apply for a school head position in schools covering only lower secondary general programmes. Teaching experience is the most common requirement, applied in three-quarters of the countries and other participants with at least one selective criterion (see Box D6.3 for more details). Other requirements are used in three to ten countries and other participants: professional development courses that do not give credentials upon completion, eligibility based on the results of competitive examinations, interviews, meeting minimum standards in a standardised test, credentials from professional development courses, additional academic experience, and one or two years of leadership experience. In Poland, the Slovak Republic and Slovenia, only teachers with senior teacher categories/positions are eligible to apply (Table D6.4).
School heads not only perform management and leadership duties, but can also be responsible for tasks related to students’ learning (see Indicator D4). It is also important that they understand the work of teachers to better manage their schools and staff. Therefore, candidates for a school head position would benefit from having teaching experience.
Among 21 countries and other participants requiring a specific number of years of teaching experience to apply for a school head position in schools covering only lower secondary general programmes, the minimum requirement ranges from two years of experience in Mexico and Türkiye, to eight years in Greece in 2021 (Table D6.4). In practice, lower secondary school heads have much more teaching experience, with an average of 20 years across 30 OECD countries and other participants in 2018 (OECD, 2019[7]). However, some of these years of experience may have been gained after they had become school heads, because some or all school heads are required to teach a number of hours in less than one-third of the OECD countries and other participants (see Indicator D4). Among countries where teaching is voluntary or not required of school heads, the average number of years of actual teaching experience ranges from 13 years in Sweden to 29 years in Japan and Latvia (OECD, 2019[7]).
The difference between the minimum teaching experience required to apply for a school head position and the average years of actual teaching experience ranges from 10 years in Colombia (where at least 6 years of teaching experience is required) to 29 years in Latvia (where no teaching experience is required). Therefore, even where no or very little teaching experience is required, candidates have usually taught for at least 10 years before moving to the main leadership position of a school (Table D6.4). This could explain why the average age of school heads (52 years) is older than that of teachers (44 years) across the OECD countries and other participants (OECD, 2019[7]).
School head positions might also appeal to those who are not teachers, but have leadership ambitions or higher earnings expectations, as salaries for school heads are higher than the average for tertiary-educated workers (see Indicator D3). However, about one-third of countries and other participants with data available allow school heads to be recruited from outside the teaching profession. Even in countries offering this pathway, it has not usually been used by the majority of the current population of school heads (see Annex 3 for more information). The eligibility requirements for non-teachers applying for a school head position include a higher level of academic qualification than fully qualified teachers (e.g. in Lithuania and the French Community of Belgium), some leadership experience (e.g. in Estonia, Lithuania, Poland and Switzerland), success in a competitive examination (e.g. in France) or a minimum level of experience in the teaching or education sector (e.g. in Korea and Sweden). There is no specific or additional eligibility requirements for non-teachers to become a school head in Denmark (for schools covering primary and lower secondary general programmes only), England (United Kingdom) and Mexico (for schools covering only vocational programmes). In Denmark, the position of school head covering primary and lower secondary general programmes only is statutorily open to anyone who is interested and eligibility is not restricted by minimum requirements, although in practice, the applicants to these positions are qualified teachers (Table D6.4).
As with teachers who enter the teaching profession through alternative pathways, the starting salaries of school heads do not often reflect any work experience acquired outside education. For heads of schools covering only lower secondary general programmes, for example, any work experience outside the sector does not affect starting salaries in four countries, and may have an impact at the discretion of the school or education authorities in three countries and other participants. Only in France and Korea (where all years of work experience outside education are recognised), and in the French Community of Belgium (where only experience in the public sector is considered) is work experience outside education taken into account (Table D6.4).
Selection of eligible candidates
Eligible candidates for a school head position go through a selection process in most countries and other participants with data, except Denmark (for pre-primary schools), England (United Kingdom) (for schools covering only vocational programmes), Italy and Luxembourg. In Italy, all eligible candidates who pass a competitive examination are registered in a roster, and then assigned to vacancies (Table D6.8, available on line).
At the lower secondary level (general programmes only), 30 countries and other participants have a selection process for school heads. The national level (or central level) education authorities provide a specific list of criteria for a standardised competitive process and/or a framework-based competitive process in about nearly two-thirds. In 13 countries and other participants, the selection process is at the discretion of local educational authorities, while in 8 it involves elections among the members of the school community (Table D6.8, available on line).
At this level, among the 19 countries where the national/central education authorities provide some guidelines on the selection process for school heads (whether standardised or based on a framework), nearly all of them assess more than one element in the selection process. The elements assessed in at least two-thirds of these countries are: pedagogical knowledge, academic qualifications, teaching experience, record of professional training in pedagogy, a presentation of a school development plan, experience in management/leadership, leadership skills, and record of professional training in management/leadership (Table D6.8, available on line).
In more than three-fifths of the countries with a standardised and/or framework-based selection process, multiple authorities and groups participate in the selection process. The most common levels of authority involved are local educational authorities (in 15 countries), followed by parents/guardians of the students in the school, teachers at the school, local networks of school heads, and central or national education authorities. In a few cases, the school’s students (in Austria, Lithuania and Spain), non-teaching personnel (in France, the Slovak Republic and Spain) and teachers’ organisations (in Israel and Poland) can also be involved in the selection process (Table D6.8, available on line).
There are hardly any differences in the school head selection process in schools at different levels of education or offering vocational programmes, compared to schools covering lower secondary general programmes only. Exceptions are England (United Kingdom) (schools covering only vocational programmes), Hungary (schools with vocational programmes), Israel (upper secondary schools), the Slovak Republic (upper secondary schools) and Slovenia (upper secondary schools) (Table D6.8, available on line).
Alternative pathways are mechanisms that grant entry into teaching for individuals with professional experience gained outside education and who do not hold full teaching qualifications. Individuals entering the teaching profession by alternative pathways are referred to as side-entrants.
Competitive examination refers to an examination organised by local, regional or national authorities in order to select applicants with the best results for a limited and fixed number of places for student teachers and/or for teachers for the public education system.
Concurrent model is an organisation of initial teacher education in which pedagogical and practical training are provided at the same time as courses in the academic subject matter to be taught.
Consecutive model is an organisation of initial teacher education in which pedagogical and practical training follow courses in (academic) subject matter. Under this model, students first obtain a degree or qualification in one or more subject areas then study the theory and practice of education as an additional academic degree or qualification programme.
Credential or licence refers to a certification, licence or similar document granted by a government agency or institution that attests that a teacher is qualified and meets the standard to teach in the public education system. The requirements for a credential or licence exceed the education diploma.
Formal induction is defined as a range of structured and repeated activities to support new teachers’ introduction into the teaching profession. It includes mentoring by experienced teachers, peer work with other new teachers, etc. Induction should be distinguished from a teaching practicum, which is part of initial teacher education.
Initial teacher education refers to the formal education and practical training that individuals must complete to obtain the diploma or degree required to become a public school teacher (excluding alternative pathways). Initial teacher education refers to both the study in particular field(s) of study and pedagogical and practical training, even when they are organised in consecutive stages.
Legal employment status for teachers could be: a civil servant, a public sector employee (an employee subject to specific legislation for public sector employees without being a civil servant) or a general employee (subject to the same general employment legislation as workers in the private sector).
Numerus clausus policies limit the number of student places for entry into initial teacher education and/or to progress to the next stage of the consecutive model of initial teacher education programmes.
Standardised test refers to a test organised by local, regional or national authorities in order to select applicants who meet the minimum performance requirements to become student teachers and/or teachers for the public education system.
Probation period refers to the employment status of starting teachers who get tenure on condition of satisfactory performance during a certain period. This mandatory work experience is required to be a licensed teacher in some countries.
Teaching practicum provides students (prospective teachers) with a supervised/guided teaching experience during their initial teacher education where they can benefit from the instructional expertise of an experienced teacher.
Thirty-six OECD and partner countries and other participants contributed to the 2021 OECD-INES-NESLI survey on pathways to becoming teachers and school heads used to develop this indicator: Australia, Austria, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, the Czech Republic, Denmark, England (United Kingdom), Estonia, Finland, France, the Flemish and French Communities of Belgium, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, Korea, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Scotland (United Kingdom), the Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and Türkiye.
See Annex 3 for country-specific notes (https://www.oecd.org/education/education-at-a-glance/EAG2022_X3-D.pdf).
Data are from the 2021 OECD-INES-NESLI survey on pathways to becoming teachers and school heads and refer to the school year 2020/21.
References
[5] Esa, N. (2010), “Environmental knowledge, attitude and practices of student teachers”, International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education, Vol. 19/1, pp. 39-50, https://doi.org/10.1080/10382040903545534.
[3] Musset, P. (2010), “Initial Teacher Education and Continuing Training Policies in a Comparative Perspective: Current Practices in OECD Countries and a Literature Review on Potential Effects”, OECD Education Working Papers, No. 48, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/5kmbphh7s47h-en.
[2] OECD (2021), Education at a Glance 2021: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/b35a14e5-en.
[7] OECD (2019), TALIS 2018 Results (Volume I): Teachers and School Leaders as Lifelong Learners, TALIS, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/1d0bc92a-en.
[1] Schleicher, A. (ed.) (2012), Preparing Teachers and Developing School Leaders for the 21st Century: Lessons from around the World, International Summit on the Teaching Profession, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264174559-en.
[4] UNESCO (1975), “Recommendation concerning Education for International Understanding, Co-operation and Peace and Education relating to Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms”, in Records of the General Conference, 18th session, Paris, 17 October to 23 November 1974, v. 1: Resolutions, UNESCO, France.
[6] UNESCO-UIS (2022), Metadata and Methodological Documents (SDG 4.7.1), https://tcg.uis.unesco.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2021/09/Metadata-4.7.1.pdf (accessed on 30 May 2022).
Cut-off date for the data: 17 June 2022. Any updates on data can be found on line at https://doi.org/10.1787/eag-data-en.
Table D6.1. Pathways to becoming a teacher (2021) |
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For lower secondary teachers (general subjects) in public institutions |
 |
Note: Details of selective criteria (Columns 7 and 8) are available in Table D6.2. Data on teachers of pre-primary, primary, lower secondary (vocational subjects) and upper secondary (general or vocational subjects) levels and the percentage of new teachers and all current teachers with the relevant qualification in Column 3 (Columns 5 and 6) are available for consultation on line (see StatLink below). For definitions of the concurrent/consecutive models (Column 3) and types of legal employment status (Column 12), see Definitions and Methodology sections. |
1. To solve the shortage of subject teachers, initial teacher education has been reduced temporarily to a concurrent two-year long master's degree programme in accordance with the teacher education framework. |
2. The criteria for the first two years of lower secondary education (general programmes) follow those for primary education and those for the last two years of lower secondary education (general programmes) follow those of upper secondary education (general programmes). |
Source: OECD (2022). See Source section for more information and Annex 3 for notes (https://www.oecd.org/education/education-at-a-glance/EAG2022_X3-D.pdf). Please refer to the Reader's Guide for information concerning symbols for missing data and abbreviations. |
Table D6.2. Requirements for entering and progressing in initial teacher education (2021) |
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For lower secondary teachers (general subjects) in public institutions |
 |
Note: "Autonomy" indicates that specified criteria are applied at the discretion of individual initial teacher education institutions. Data on teachers of pre-primary, primary, lower secondary (vocational subjects) and upper secondary (general or vocational subjects) levels and details of other selective criteria (Columns 9 and 17) are available for consultation on line (see StatLink below). See Definitions and Methodology sections for more information. |
1. The criteria for the first two years of lower secondary education (general programmes) follow those for primary education and those for the last two years of lower secondary education (general programmes) follow those of upper secondary education (general programmes). |
Source: OECD (2022). See Source section for more information and Annex 3 for notes (https://www.oecd.org/education/education-at-a-glance/EAG2022_X3-D.pdf). Please refer to the Reader's Guide for information concerning symbols for missing data and abbreviations. |
Table D6.3. Content of initial teacher education (2021) |
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For lower secondary teachers (general subjects) in public institutions |
 |
 |
Legend for columns on required content of initial teacher education for students: |
By institutions: Mandatory for students, at the discretion of individual institutions |
No, voluntary: Voluntary for students at their own discretion |
Note: Data on teachers of pre-primary, primary, lower secondary (vocational subjects) and upper secondary (general or vocational subjects) levels; data on the existence of academic subject studies specific to prospective teachers and requirement for a dissertation based on students' own research (Columns 3 and 8) are available for consultation on line (see StatLink below). See Definitions and Methodology sections for more information. |
1. Total duration of the teaching practicum refers to minimum duration instead of typical duration. |
2. Duration of the teaching practicum includes time spent on pedagogical practice courses or other activities related to teaching practicum. |
3. The criteria for the first two years of lower secondary education (general programmes) follow those for primary education and those for the last two years of lower secondary education (general programmes) follow those of upper secondary education (general programmes). |
Source: OECD (2022). See Source section for more information and Annex 3 for notes (https://www.oecd.org/education/education-at-a-glance/EAG2022_X3-D.pdf). Please refer to the Reader's Guide for information concerning symbols for missing data and abbreviations. |
Table D6.4. Pathways to becoming a school head (2021) |
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For lower secondary schools heads (general programmes) in public institutions |
 |
Note: Data on teachers of pre-primary, primary, lower secondary (vocational subjects) and upper secondary (general or vocational subjects) levels, and additional information on pathways for non-teachers to apply for a school head position (Columns 13 to 16) are available for consultation on line (see StatLink below). See Definitions and Methodology sections for more information. |
Source: OECD (2022). See Source section for more information and Annex 3 for notes (https://www.oecd.org/education/education-at-a-glance/EAG2022_X3-D.pdf). Please refer to the Reader's Guide for information concerning symbols for missing data and abbreviations. |