Indicator A7. To what extent do adults participate in education and training?

Highlights

The most common form of participation in adult learning is non-formal education and training, mostly job-related. Slightly more than one in ten adults (25-64 year-olds) participate in non-formal education and training on average across OECD and accession countries reporting data with a four-week reference period, of which almost 80% have engaged in at least one job-related learning activity.
On average, 7% of adults with vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment had taken up non-formal job-related education and training, the same share as their counterparts with a general qualification among countries reporting data with a four-week reference period.
Take up varies by sector: 8% of adults working in the manufacturing participated in non-formal job-related education and training, compared to 14% in the information and communication sector and 17% in the education sector on average across countries reporting four-week participation data.

Figure A7.1. Participation in non-formal job-related education and training, by educational attainment and programme orientation (2022)

Context

Initial education plays a key role in equipping young people with the skills for successful labour-market entry. However, completion of initial education should not be the end of the road for learning. Investing in adult learning, also known as lifelong learning, is essential to enable all adults to maintain and upgrade their skills, whether they are working or looking for jobs.

Adult learning is becoming a crucial tool for societies as they look to adapt to emerging challenges and benefit from new opportunities. Technological change means an increasing number of jobs can be automated, while demographic change will mean fewer young people entering the labour market. These wider trends are already having profound impacts on labour markets, and analyses suggest that skill needs will continue to change rapidly over the next decades (OECD, 2019[2]).

Adult learning systems differ considerably across OECD and accession countries but what is common is that those with the greatest needs are often the ones receiving the least training. This indicator considers who is undertaking non-formal education and training and of what kind, and how employers are supporting it.

Other findings

On average, 13% of women and 10% of men participate in non-formal education and training across OECD and accession countries reporting four-week data. However, the men who do participate are more likely to take part in job-related learning activities than women: 80% of these men and 75% of these women took part in job-related activities.
Participation in non-formal job-related education and training decreases with age. But the fall is less steep for tertiary-educated adults than for those with lower levels of educational attainment.
Large enterprises invest a larger share of their total labour costs in training than small enterprises in almost all OECD and accession countries with available data: companies with 250 or more employed persons spend 1.5% of total labour costs on continuing vocational training (CVT) courses, compared to just 0.8% by companies with 10-49 employed persons, on average across OECD and accession countries taking part in the European Union Continuing Vocational Training Survey (EU-CVTS).

Note

Different sources are used for the participation in job-related education and training in this indicator. The main difference between the surveys used is the reference period – whether it was the 4 weeks or the 12 months prior to the survey. In other words, respondents’ answers are based on their situation over the last 4 weeks or 12 months preceding the survey. The difference in reference period leads to big differences in participation rates. Please refer to the Source and Methodology sections for more information.

Analysis

Adult learning often takes the form of non-formal education and training, rather than formal education, which dominates initial education and is more common among young people (OECD, 2022[3]). This is not surprising given that adult learning indicators cover those aged 25-64, when most people have already completed their formal studies. The analysis below will concentrate on non-formal education and training. Refer to the Definitions section for more information on the type of learning activities.

Particiption in non-formal education and training

On average across OECD and accession countries reporting data with a four-week reference period, slightly more than one in ten adults participate in non-formal education and training. This share ranges from just 1% in Bulgaria and the Republic of Türkiye (hereafter “Türkiye”), to over 20% in Denmark and 30% in Sweden. Among OECD countries reporting data with a 12-month reference period, the participation rates are generally higher, as would be expected: around 30% in Australia, Canada and Korea, and 7% in Costa Rica (Table A7.1).

On average, 13% of women and 10% of men took part in non-formal education and training across OECD and accession countries with a four-week reference period. The gender difference is more than 5 percentage points in Denmark, Estonia, Finland and Sweden. Among the OECD countries that reported over a 12-month reference period, Australia, Canada and Costa Rica also show higher participation rates in non-formal education and training among women while the opposite is observed in Korea (Table A7.1, online columns).

Participation by job-relatedness

Non-formal education and training can be divided into job-related and non-job-related. Most adults participating in non-formal education and training took part in at least one job-related education and training activity. On average across the countries with a four-week reference period, almost 80% of adults participating in non-formal education and training engaged in at least one job-related activity. This share exceeds 90% in Norway, Romania and the Slovak Republic. Denmark is the only country where adults are more likely to participate in non-job-related education and training than job-related activities. Data for OECD countries with a 12-month reference period also show that job-related training is more popular among adults participating in non-formal education and training (Table A7.1).

On average over countries with a four-week reference period, 9% of women and 8% of men participate in job-related non-formal education and training. However, as a share of those participating in non-formal education and training, men are more likely to participate in job-related learning activities than women: 80% of the men who participated in any non-formal education and training took part in job-related learning activities, compared to 75% of the women. This pattern holds true in most OECD and accession countries regardless of survey reference period, except for Bulgaria, Croatia, Hungary, Lithuania and Poland (Table A7.1, online columns).

Participation by labour-market status

On average across OECD and accession countries reporting data with a four-week reference period, the percentage of both employed and unemployed adults participating in at least one job-related non-formal education and training activity was roughly the same (10%). In Austria, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Luxembourg, Portugal and Sweden, unemployed adults are more likely to participate in non-formal job-related education and training than employed adults. The gaps in participation rates between employed and unemployed adults are much wider among OECD countries with a 12-month reference period. For example, employed adults are over 20 percentage points more likely to have participated than unemployed adults in Australia and more than 10 percentage points more likely in Canada (Figure A7.2).

Adults who are inactive in the labour market are much less likely to participate in job-related learning activities than those who are working or seeking employment. On average across OECD and accession countries with four-week data, only 2% of inactive adults participated in at least one job-related non-formal education and training. However inactive adults are more likely to participate in non-job-related activities than their employed or unemployed counterparts (Table A7.1).

Figure A7.2. Participation in non-formal job-related education and training, by labour-market status (2022)

Participation by age group, educational attainment and programme orientation

Learning begets learning. Participation rates in non-formal job-related education and training tend to increase with educational attainment. On average across OECD and accession countries with a four-week reference period, only 4% of 25-64 year-olds with below upper secondary attainment participate in non-formal job-related education and training. The share increases to 6% among those with upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment and reaches 14% among tertiary-educated adults. Australia and Canada also follow this pattern, although their 12-month reference periods lead to higher participation rates (Table A7.2).

Vocational qualifications often aim to equip students with specific skills to enter the labour market. However, these skills might be less transferable than those acquired in general programmes. Given rapid technological change, VET graduates may be particularly exposed to job disruptions and therefore need to benefit from learning opportunities over their work life to meet new skill needs. On average across OECD and accession countries reporting data with a four-week reference period, 7% of adults with vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary attainment report having taken up such learning activities, the same share as for their counterparts with a general qualification. In Austria and Slovenia, the difference exceeds 5 percentage points in favour of those with a general qualification but in more than one-third of countries the participation rate barely differs by programme orientation. In contrast, the data from Australia and Canada, with a 12-month reference period, suggest that adults with a vocational qualification at this level are more likely to participate in non-formal job-related education and training than their peers with a general one (Figure A7.1).

Participation in non-formal job-related education and training decreases with age (reflecting in part that the older group is leaving the labour force). On average across OECD and accession countries with available data, the share is 10% among 25-54 year-olds compared to 6% among 55-64 year-olds over the four weeks preceding the survey. Iceland is the only country where the participation rate remains almost constant between these age groups among countries with this reference period. Data with a 12-month reference period from Australia and Canada show a similar decline between 25-54 year-olds and 55-64 year-olds (Table A7.2, online columns).

Compared to those with lower educational attainment, tertiary-educated adults seem more likely to continue non-formal job-related education and training later in their careers. Participation in non-formal job-related education and training decreases between 25-54 year-olds and 55-64 year-olds. But the fall is less steep for tertiary-educated adults than for those with lower levels of educational attainment (Table A7.2). This is partially related to the fact that tertiary-educated 55-64 year-olds are more likely to be active in the labour market (i.e. employed or unemployed) compared to their counterparts without a tertiary degree. On average across OECD countries, only about one in five tertiary-educated 55-64 year-olds are inactive, while almost half of those with below upper secondary attainment are inactive (OECD, 2023[4]).

Participation of employed adults in non-formal job-related education and training

Participation by size of enterprise

The differences in job-related training also arise among employed adults depending on the size of the enterprise they work for. For instance, regardless of the reference period considered, workers in larger enterprises in OECD and accession countries are more likely to take up non-formal job-related education and training than those in smaller ones (Table A7.3). This is related to the fact that small and medium-sized enterprises often lack the capacity to offer training opportunities to their employees (OECD, 2019[2]).

On average, 11% of adults working in enterprises with 10-49 employed persons participate in non-formal job-related education and training during the four weeks prior to the survey. The share rises to 13% among those in enterprises with 50-249 employed persons and 15% for those in enterprises with over 249 employed persons. While the difference in participation rates between small and large firms is only in single figures in most countries with a four-week reference period, the gap is 20 percentage points in Latvia (Figure A7.3).

Not all countries show a positive relationship between the size of enterprise (in terms of the number employed) and participation in non-formal job-related education and training. For example, in Lithuania, Poland and Slovenia, adults working in medium-sized enterprises are the most likely to participate in non-formal education and training over the four weeks preceding the survey (Figure A7.3).

Figure A7.3. Participation of employed adults in non-formal job-related education and training, by size of enterprise (2022)

Participation in the public and private sector

Working in the public sector is often associated with greater participation in non-formal job-related education and training than working in the private sector. This could be related to different cultures and governance structures in the two sectors. It could also be associated with the size of enterprises in the private sector compared with the public sector. The distribution of employees by educational attainment and/or by gender could also differ between these sectors. Given the various factors other than public/private sector that could influence participation rates, caution is needed when interpreting the difference in participation rates in the public and private sector across countries.

On average across OECD and accession countries with a four-week reference period, 16% of adults working in the public sector participated in job-related non-formal education and training, compared to 9% of adults in the private sector (regardless of the size of the enterprise). The largest differences are observed in Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Slovenia, Spain and Switzerland where the public sector participation rate is more than 10 percentage points higher than for the private sector. This pattern holds true in all countries with this reference period. In Canada, where data with a 12-month reference period are used, 41% of adults employed in the public sector and 26% of those in the private sector participated in job-related non-formal education and training (Table A7.4, available on line).

The difference in participation rates in adult learning activities is not limited to gender, age group, educational attainment, sector of occupation or size of enterprise. Box A7.1 shows the unequal participation in job-related education and training by economic activity.

Box A7.1. The unequal participation in job-related education and training by economic activity

Technological advances and an ageing society have major implications for the demand and supply of skills, work organisation and business models. These trends are likely to affect all workers. Some studies show that occupations at a greater risk of automation experience lower rates of employment growth and a greater decline in job stability compared to occupations at a lower risk of automation (OECD, 2021[5]). These workers will face urgent need for training to upskill or reskill. This is particularly the case for adults working in the manufacturing, land transport or food services, whose jobs face a relatively high risk of automation (Nedelkoska and Quintini, 2018[6]). However, the recent rapid development of artificial intelligence, and especially the progress made by large language models, has opened the possibility that large numbers of high-skilled jobs could also be at risk of automation.

Figure A7.4 shows that on average across countries that report four-week data, only 8% of adults working in the manufacturing sector participate in non-formal job-related education and training, compared to 14% of those in the information and communication sector. In Estonia, Iceland, Italy, Latvia, Portugal, the Slovak Republic, Slovenia and Spain, the difference is more than 10 percentage points. Data from Canada, with a 12-month reference period, show a similar pattern, with 23% of adults working in the manufacturing sector participating compared to 32% of those in information and communication. Finland is the only country where those working in the manufacturing sector are more likely to participate in non-formal job-related education and training than those in the information and communication sector.

This comparison suggests that participation in job-related learning activities is lower among workers in jobs at a high risk of automation. This finding holds true across wider range of economic activities. For example, around 8% of adults with jobs in construction or transportation and storage participate in non-formal job-related education and training on average across OECD and accession countries reporting four-week data. The participation rate doubles among those who work in public administration and defence, compulsory social security, education, and human health and social work (Table A7.5, available on line).

Figure A7.4. Share of employed adults participating in non-formal job-related education and training, by economic activity (2022)

The differences in training incidence between groups (e.g. gender, educational attainment, programme orientation, labour-market status, age, size, sector of enterprise and economic activity) should be carefully interpreted and do not imply any causal relationships. Many of these groups overlap and the descriptive statistics presented in this analysis cannot isolate the effect of each characteristic.

Training costs for enterprises over time

Employers benefit greatly from the outcomes of job-related training and they contribute a substantial share of the financial resources invested in adult learning (European Education and Culture Executive Agency et al., 2015[7]). Data from the European Union Continuing Vocational Training Survey (EU-CVTS) and a national survey from Switzerland suggest that larger enterprises financially invest more in training than smaller enterprises. In 2020, on average across OECD and accession countries taking part in EU-CVTS, training costs in the form of continuing vocational training (CVT) courses or other forms of CVT for their employees make up 1.5% of the total labour costs of enterprises with over 249 employed persons, 1.1% for enterprises with 50-249 employed persons and 0.8% for enterprises with 10-49 employed persons (Figure A7.5).

Figure A7.5. Training costs for Continuing Vocational Training (CVT) courses as a share of labour costs, by size of enterprise (2020)

In most OECD and accession countries participating in EU-CVTS, training costs had fallen relative to total labour costs in 2020 compared to the share in 2010 and 2005. This is probably related to the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, which made it more challenging to provide trainings due to sanitary restrictions. On average, the overall training costs among enterprises with at least 10 employed persons was 1.5% of total labour costs in 2005, 1.7% in 2010 and 1.2% in 2020. Italy, the Netherlands and Norway are the only countries where enterprises continued to increase the share of their training costs between 2005, 2010 and 2020 (Table A7.3).

Definitions

Adults refer to 25-64 year-olds.

Adult learning means the participation of adults in lifelong learning. Adult learning usually refers to learning activities after the end of initial education. The participation rate in education and training covers participation in both formal and non-formal education and training.

Continuing vocational training (CVT) refers to training measures or activities which have as their primary objectives the acquisition of new competencies or the development and improvement of existing ones and which must be financed at least partly by the enterprises for employed persons who either have a working contract or who benefit directly from their work for the enterprise such as unpaid family workers and casual workers. Persons employed holding an apprenticeship or training contract should not be taken into consideration for CVT.

Educational attainment refers to the highest level of education successfully completed by an individual.

Job-related education or training: Taking part in training activity in order to obtain knowledge and/or learn new skills needed for a current or future job, to increase earnings, to improve job and/or career opportunities in a current or another field and generally to improve opportunities for advancement and promotion.

Learning activities are any activities of an individual organised with the intention to improve their knowledge, skills and competencies. There are two fundamental criteria that distinguish learning activities from non-learning activities: they must be intentional and organised. Intentional learning (as opposed to random learning) is defined as a deliberate search for knowledge, skills or competencies or attitudes of lasting value. Organised learning is defined as learning planned in a pattern or sequence with explicit or implicit aims.

The learning activities are defined within a classification named classification of learning activities (CLA) (Eurostat, 2016[8]), where

Formal education and training is defined as “education that is institutionalised, intentional and planned through public organisations and recognised private bodies, and - in their totality - constitute the formal education system of a country. Formal education programmes are thus recognised as such by the relevant national education or equivalent authorities, e.g. any other institution in cooperation with the national or sub-national education authorities. Formal education consists mostly of initial education [...]. Vocational education, special needs education and some parts of adult education are often recognised as being part of the formal education system. Qualifications from formal education are by definition recognised and, therefore, are within the scope of ISCED. Institutionalised education occurs when an organisation provides structured educational arrangements, such as student-teacher relationships and/or interactions, that are specially designed for education and learning” (UIS, 2012[9]).

Non-formal education and training is defined as “education that is institutionalised, intentional and planned by an education provider. The defining characteristic of non-formal education is that it is an addition, alternative and/or complement to formal education within the process of lifelong learning of individuals. It is often provided in order to guarantee the right of access to education for all. It caters to people of all ages but does not necessarily apply a continuous pathway structure; it may be short in duration and/or low-intensity; and it is typically provided in the form of short courses, workshops or seminars. Non-formal education mostly leads to qualifications that are not recognised as formal or equivalent to formal qualifications by the relevant national or sub-national education authorities or to no qualifications at all. Nevertheless, formal, recognised qualifications may be obtained through exclusive participation in specific non-formal education programmes; this often happens when the non-formal programme completes the competencies obtained in another context” (UIS, 2012[9]).

Non-formal job-related education and training: taking part in non-formal education and training activity in order to obtain knowledge and/or learn new skills needed for a current or future job, to increase earnings, to improve job and/or career opportunities in a current or another field and generally to improve their opportunities for advancement and promotion.

Methodology

This indicator includes data on participation in formal and/or non-formal education and training from different sources that have different reference periods: either 4 weeks or 12 months before the survey.

The European Union-Labour Force Survey (EU-LFS) is held quarterly and measures participation in formal and/or non-formal education and training during a four-week period excluding guided on-the-job training. The EU-LFS methodology can be found at https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=EU_labour_force_survey_-_methodology. The national survey of the United Kingdom also uses a 4-week reference period, while the national surveys of Australia, Canada, Costa Rica and Korea use a 12-month reference period.

The European Union Continuous Vocational Training Survey (EU-CVTS) takes place every five year and measures continuing vocational training carried out in enterprises over the 12 months prior to the survey. The EU-CVTS methodology can be found at: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Continuing_Vocational_Training_Survey_(CVTS)_methodology. National survey of Switzerland is also based on the EU-CVTS methodology and measure training costs in enterprises during a 12-month period.

For more information see Source section and Education at a Glance 2023 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (OECD, 2023[1]).

Source

For Tables A7.1, A7.2, A7.4 and A7.5 on participation in non-formal education and training: the EU-LFS for European OECD and accession countries (i.e. Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, the Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and Türkiye), and national data sources for Australia (Australian Bureau Survey of Work-Related Training and Adult Learning), Costa Rica (Continuous Employment Survey), Canada (Labour Force Survey), Korea (Korean Adult Lifelong Learning Survey) and the United Kingdom (Labour Force Survey).
For Table A7.3 on training costs of enterprises: the Continuing Vocational Training Survey (CVTS) for European OECD and accession countries (i.e. Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, the Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden) and the United Kingdom, and national data source for Switzerland (Swiss Continuing Education and Training Survey).

References

[7] European Education and Culture Executive Agency et al. (2015), Adult Education and Training in Europe: Widening Access to Learning Opportunities, Publications Office of the Euroepan Union, https://doi.org/10.2797/8002.

[8] Eurostat (2016), Classification of Learning Activities (CLA): Manual: 2016 Edition, Publications Office of the European Union, https://doi.org/10.2785/874604.

[6] Nedelkoska, L. and G. Quintini (2018), “Automation, skills use and training”, OECD Social, Employment and Migration Working Papers, No. 202, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/2e2f4eea-en.

[1] OECD (2023), Education at a Glance 2023 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/d7f76adc-en.

[4] OECD (2023), Education at a Glance Database - Educational attainment and labour-force status, http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?datasetcode=EAG_NEAC.

[3] OECD (2022), Education at a Glance 2022: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/3197152b-en.

[5] OECD (2021), “What happened to jobs at high risk of automation?”, Policy Brief on the Future of Work, OECD, Paris, https://www.oecd.org/future-of-work/reports-and-data/what-happened-to-jobs-at-high-risk-of-automation-2021.pdf.

[2] OECD (2019), Getting Skills Right: Engaging Low-Skilled Adults in Learning, OECD, Paris, https://www.oecd.org/els/emp/engaging-low-skilled-adults-2019.pdf.

[9] UIS (2012), International Standard Classification of Education: ISCED 2011, UNESCO Institute for Statistics, Montreal, https://doi.org/10.15220/978-92-9189-123-8-en.

Indicator A7 tables

Tables Indicator A7. To what extent do adults participate in education and training?
Table A7.1	Share of adults participating in non-formal education and training, by labour-market status, job-relatedness and gender (2022)
Table A7.2	Share of adults participating in non-formal job-related education and training, by educational attainment, programme orientation and age group (2022)
Table A7.3	Training costs as a share of total labour costs, by size of enterprise (2010, 2015 and 2020)
WEB Table A7.4	Share of employed adults participating in non-formal job-related education and training, by size and sector of enterprise (2022)
WEB Table A7.5	Share of employed adults participating in non-formal job-related education and training, by economic activity (2022)
StatLink https://stat.link/slufyd

Cut-off date for the data: 15 June 2023. Any updates on data can be found on line at: https://doi.org/10.1787/eag-data-en. More breakdowns can also be found at http://stats.oecd.org, Education at a Glance Database.

Table A7.1. Share of adults participating in non-formal education and training, by labour-market status, job-relatedness and gender (2022)
25-64 year-olds; EU Labour Force Survey (EU-LFS) or national surveys

Note: See StatLink and Box A7.2 for the notes related to this Table.
Source: OECD (2023). For more information see Source section and Education at a Glance 2023 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (OECD, 2023[1]).
StatLink https://stat.link/db56z4

Table A7.2. Share of adults participating in non-formal job-related education and training, by educational attainment, programme orientation and age group (2022)
EU Labour Force Survey (EU-LFS) or national surveys

Note: See StatLink and Box A7.2 for the notes related to this Table.
Source: OECD (2023). For more information see Source section and Education at a Glance 2023 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (OECD, 2023[1]).
StatLink https://stat.link/hcn3ag

Table A7.3. Training costs as a share of total labour costs, by size of enterprise (2010, 2015 and 2020)
EU Continuing Vocational Training Survey (EU-CVTS) or national surveys

Note: See Statink and Box A7.2 for the notes related to this Table.
Source: OECD (2023). For more information see Source section and Education at a Glance 2023 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (OECD, 2023[1]).
StatLink https://stat.link/wy5umn

Box A7.2. Notes for Indicator A7 Tables

Table A7.1. Share of adults participating in non-formal education and training, by labour-market status, job-relatedness and gender (2022)

The reference period for participation in non-formal education and training is during the previous 4 weeks (top panel of the table) or the previous 12 months (bottom panel of the table). The breakdown by gender is available for consultation on line (see StatLink).

1. Year of reference 2021-2022.

2. Reference period ending in November 2022 and the labour market status recorded in November 2022.

Table A7.2. Share of adults participating in non-formal job-related education and training, by educational attainment, programme orientation and age group (2022)

The reference period for participation in non-formal education and training is during the previous 4 weeks (top panel of the table) or the previous 12 months (bottom panel of the table). Totals for all levels of educational attainment are available for consultation on line (see StatLink).

1. Year of reference 2021-2022.

Reference period ending in November 2022.

Table A7.3. Training costs as a share of total labour costs, by size of enterprise (2010, 2015 and 2020)

Training costs during the 12 months prior to the survey. Note that the average differs from the one published by Eurostat as this is an unweighted average and the country coverage is different (see StatLink).

1. Data were mainly collected on line and via interactive PDF forms, only a small share of questionnaires was distributed in a paper form. See metadata for more information at https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/cache/metadata/EN/trng_cvt_sims_cz.htm.

For more information see Definitions, Methodology and Source sections and Education at a Glance 2023 Sources, Methodologies and Technical Notes (OECD, 2023[1]).

Data and more breakdowns are available in the Education at a Glance Database (http://stats.oecd.org/).

Please refer to the Reader's Guide for information concerning symbols for missing data and abbreviations.

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